Anti-Chinese sentiment

Anti-Chinese sentiment (also referred to as Sinophobia) is the fear or dislike of China, Chinese people and/or Chinese culture.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] In the western world, fear over the increasing economic and military power of China, its technological prowess and cultural reach, as well as international influence, has driven persistent and selectively negative media coverage of China. This is often aided and abetted by policymakers and politicians,^[7]^[8] whose actions are driven both by prejudice and expedience.^[9]

It is frequently directed at Chinese minorities which live outside China and involves immigration, nationalism, political ideologies, disparity of wealth, the past tributary system of Imperial China, majority-minority relations, imperial legacies, and racism.^[10]^[11]^[12]^{[note 1]}

A variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of Chinese people have existed around the world since the twentieth century, and they are frequently conflated with a variety of popular cultural clichés and negative stereotypes of other Asian ethnic groups, known as the Yellow Peril.^[15] Some individuals may harbor prejudice or hatred against Chinese people due to history, racism, modern politics, cultural differences, propaganda, or ingrained stereotypes.^[15]^[16]

The COVID-19 pandemic led to resurgent Sinophobia, whose manifestations range from as subtle acts of discrimination such as microaggression and stigmatization, exclusion and shunning, to more overt forms, such as outright verbal abuse, slurs and name-calling, and sometimes physical violence.^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]

Statistics and background

Results of 2022 Morning Consult poll^[22] "Do you have a favorable or unfavorable view of China?" (default-sorted by increasing negativity of each country)
Country polled	Positive	Negative	Neutral	Difference
Pakistan	82%	13%	5%	+69
Russia	74%	9%	17%	+65
Nigeria	74%	16%	10%	+58
Bangladesh	62%	14%	24%	+48
Peru	58%	23%	19%	+35
Colombia	57%	23%	20%	+34
Thailand	54%	20%	26%	+34
Saudi Arabia	57%	26%	17%	+31
Mexico	49%	20%	31%	+29
Indonesia	46%	18%	36%	+28
South Africa	54%	28%	18%	+26
United Arab Emirates	55%	31%	14%	+24
Chile	48%	34%	18%	+14
Brazil	43%	31%	26%	+12
Argentina	44%	33%	23%	+11
Malaysia	45%	40%	15%	+5
Singapore	41%	41%	18%	0
Romania	38%	39%	23%	-1
Turkey	38%	45%	17%	-7
Philippines	37%	45%	18%	-8
Spain	31%	47%	22%	-16
Israel	32%	52%	16%	-20
Italy	27%	53%	20%	-26
Vietnam	28%	58%	14%	-30
Czech Republic	23%	56%	21%	-33
Poland	22%	55%	23%	-33
India	24%	59%	17%	-35
Belgium	18%	56%	26%	-38
France	15%	57%	28%	-42
Ireland	18%	62%	20%	-44
United States	16%	62%	22%	-46
Netherlands	15%	62%	23%	-47
Canada	14%	62%	24%	-48
United Kingdom	14%	62%	24%	-48
Switzerland	19%	69%	12%	-50
Norway	16%	70%	14%	-54
Austria	14%	70%	16%	-56
Australia	13%	69%	18%	-56
Germany	13%	69%	18%	-56
Sweden	12%	73%	15%	-61
Japan	7%	78%	15%	-71
South Korea	5%	88%	7%	-83

In 2013, Pew Research Center from the United States conducted a survey on sinophobia, finding that China was viewed favorably in half (19 of 38) of the nations surveyed, excluding China itself. The highest levels of support came from Asia in Malaysia (81%) and Pakistan (81%); African nations of Kenya (78%), Senegal (77%) and Nigeria (76%); as well as Latin America, particularly in countries heavily engaging with the Chinese market, such as Venezuela (71%), Brazil (65%) and Chile (62%).^[23]

Anti-China sentiment

Anti-China sentiment has remained persistent in the West and other Asian countries: only 28% of Germans and Italians and 37% of Americans viewed China favorably while in Japan, just 5% of respondents had a favorable opinion of the country. 11 of the 38 nations viewed China unfavorably by over 50%. Japan was polled to have the most anti-China sentiment, where 93% saw the People's Republic in a negative light. There were also majorities in Germany (64%), Italy (62%), and Israel (60%) who held negative views of China. Germany saw a large increase of anti-China sentiment, from 33% disfavor in 2006 to 64% in the 2013 survey, with such views existing despite Germany's success in exporting to China.^[23]

Positive views of China

Respondents in the Balkans have held generally positive views of China, according to 2020 polling. An International Republican Institute survey from February to March found that only in Kosovo (75%) did most respondents express an unfavourable opinion of the country, while majorities in Serbia (85%), Montenegro (68%), North Macedonia (56%), and Bosnia (52%) expressed favourable views.^[24] A GLOBSEC poll on October found that the highest percentage of those who saw China as a threat were in the Czech Republic (51%), Poland (34%), and Hungary (24%), while it was seen as least threatening in Balkan countries such as Bulgaria (3%), Serbia (13%), and North Macedonia (14%). Reasons for threat perception were generally linked to the country's economic influence.^[25]

According to Arab Barometer polls, views of China in the Arab world have been relatively positive, with data from March to April 2021 showing that most respondents in Algeria (65%), Morocco (62%), Libya (60%), Tunisia (59%), and Iraq (56%) held favourable views of the country while views were less favourable in Lebanon (38%) and Jordan (34%).^[26]

Impact of COVID pandemic

Global polling in 2020 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic reported a decrease in favourable views of China, with an Ipsos poll done in November finding those in Russia (81%), Mexico (72%), Malaysia (68%), Peru (67%) and Saudi Arabia (65%) were most likely to believe China's future influence would be positive, while those in Great Britain (19%), Canada (21%), Germany (24%), Australia (24%), Japan (24%), the United States (24%) and France (24%) were least likely.^[27] A YouGov poll on August found that those in Nigeria (70%), Thailand (64%), Mexico (61%), and Egypt (55%) had more positive views of China regarding world affairs while those in Japan (7%), Denmark (13%), Britain (13%), Sweden (14%), and other Western countries had the least positive views.^[28]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, victims of violence and verbal abuse range from toddlers to elderly,^[20] school children and their parents,^[17] and include not just mainland Chinese, but has affected also Taiwanese, Hong Kongers, members of the Chinese diaspora and other Asians who are mistaken for or associated with them.^[19]^[17]

History

Looting and sacking of national treasures

Historical records document the existence of anti-Chinese sentiment throughout China's imperial wars.^[29]

Lord Palmerston was responsible for sparking the First Opium War (1839–1842) with Qing China. He considered Chinese culture "uncivilized", and his negative views on China played a significant role in his decision to issue a declaration of war.^[30] This disdain became increasingly common throughout the Second Opium War (1856–1860), when repeated attacks against foreign traders in China inflamed anti-Chinese sentiment abroad.^{[citation needed]} Following the defeat of China in the Second Opium War, Lord Elgin, upon his arrival in Peking in 1860, ordered the sacking and burning of China's imperial Summer Palace in vengeance.^{[citation needed]}

Chinese Exclusion Act 1882

In the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed in response to growing Sinophobia. It prohibited all immigration of Chinese laborers and turned those already in the country into second-class persons.^[31] The 1882 Act was the first U.S. immigration law to target a specific ethnicity or nationality.^[32]^: 25 Meanwhile, during the mid-19th century in Peru, Chinese were used as slave labor and they were not allowed to hold any important positions in Peruvian society.^[33]

Chinese workers in England

Chinese workers had been a fixture on London's docks since the mid-eighteenth century, when they arrived as sailors who were employed by the East India Company, importing tea and spices from the Far East. Conditions on those long voyages were so dreadful that many sailors decided to abscond and take their chances on the streets rather than face the return journey. Those who stayed generally settled around the bustling docks, running laundries and small lodging houses for other sailors or selling exotic Asian produce. By the 1880s, a small but recognizable Chinese community had developed in the Limehouse area, increasing Sinophobic sentiments among other Londoners, who feared the Chinese workers might take over their traditional jobs due to their willingness to work for much lower wages and longer hours than other workers in the same industries. The entire Chinese population of London was only in the low hundreds—in a city whose entire population was roughly estimated to be seven million—but nativist feelings ran high, as was evidenced by the Aliens Act of 1905, a bundle of legislation which sought to restrict the entry of poor and low-skilled foreign workers.^[34] Chinese Londoners also became involved with illegal criminal organisations, further spurring Sinophobic sentiments.^[34]^[35]

Cold War

During the Cold War, anti-Chinese sentiment became a permanent fixture in the media of the Western world and anti-communist countries following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. From the 1950s to the 1980s, anti-Chinese sentiment was high in South Korea as a result of the Chinese intervention against the South Korean army in the Korean War (1950–1953).

In the Soviet Union, anti-Chinese sentiment became high following the hostile political relations between the PRC and the USSR from the late 1950s onward, which nearly escalated into war between the two countries in 1969. The "Chinese threat", as it was described in a letter by Alexander Solzhenitsyn, prompted expressions of anti-Chinese sentiment in the conservative Russian samizdat movement.^[36]

In what has been described as "The Second Cold War",^[37] the United States of America has invested a significant amount of money in framing China as a threat. In 2024, congress passed a law to fund over $1.6B in anti-Chinese propaganda. ^[38]

By region

East Asia

Korea

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea was created in the 21st century by cultural and historical claims of China and a sense of security crisis caused by China's economic growth.^[39] In the early 2000s, China's claim over the history of Goguryeo, an ancient Korean kingdom, caused tensions between both Koreas and China.^[40]^[41] The dispute has also involved naming controversies over Paektu Mountain (or Changbai Mountain in Chinese).^[42] China has been accused of trying to appropriate kimchi^[43] and hanbok as part of Chinese culture,^[44] along with labeling Yun Dong-ju as chaoxianzu, which have all angered South Koreans.^[45]

Anti-Chinese sentiments in South Korea have been on a steady rise since 2002. According to Pew opinion polls, favorable views of China steadily declined from 66% in 2002 to 48% in 2008, while unfavorable views rose from 31% in 2002 to 49% in 2008.^[23] According to surveys by the East Asia Institute, positive views of China's influence declined from 48.6% in 2005 to 38% in 2009, while negative views of it rose from 46.7% in 2005 to 50% in 2008.^[46] A 2012 BBC World Service poll had 64% of South Koreans expressing negative views of China's influence, which was the highest percentage out of 21 countries surveyed including Japan at 50%.^[47]

Relations further strained with the deployment of THAAD in South Korea in 2017, in which China started its boycott against Korea, making Koreans develop anti-Chinese sentiment in South Korea over reports of economic retaliation by Beijing.^[48] According to a poll from the Institute for Peace and Unification Studies at Seoul National University in 2018, 46% of South Koreans found China as the most threatening country to inter-Korean peace (compared to 33% for North Korea), marking the first time China was seen as a bigger threat than North Korea since the survey began in 2007.^[49] A 2022 poll from the Central European Institute of Asian Studies had 81% of South Koreans expressing a negative view of China, which was the highest out of 56 countries surveyed.^[50]

Discriminatory views of Chinese people have been reported,^[51]^[52] and ethnic-Chinese Koreans have faced prejudices including what is said, to be a widespread criminal stigma.^[53]^[54] Increased anti-Chinese sentiments had reportedly led to online comments calling the Nanjing Massacre the "Nanjing Grand Festival" or others such as "Good Chinese are only dead Chinese" and "I want to kill Korean Chinese".^[55]^[53]

Taiwan

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Taiwan comes from the fact that many Taiwanese, especially young people, choose to identify solely as "Taiwanese"^[56] and are against having closer ties with China, like those in the Sunflower Student Movement.^[57] According to a 2024 survey from Taiwan's Mainland Affairs Council, Taiwanese believe that China is Taiwan's main enemy and unfriendly to Taiwan. Taiwan's government is communicating and cooperating with democratic countries such as South Korea and the United States.^[58]

Taiwan's main political parties, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) are some described as "anti-China".^[59]^[60] The DPP is expressing its opposition to Chinese "imperialism" and "colonialism".^[59]

In the late 1940s, the anti-mainland Chinese term "The dogs go and the pigs come" became popular in Taiwanese society as a result of dissatisfaction with the Republic of China controlled by a one-party system of KMT's rule and the February 28 incident caused by KMT regime.^{[citation needed]}

Japan

After the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II in 1945, the relationship between China and Japan gradually improved. However, since 2000, Japan has seen a gradual resurgence of anti-Chinese sentiment. Many Japanese people believe that China is using the issue of the country's checkered history, such as the Japanese history textbook controversies, many war crimes which were committed by Japan's military, and official visits to the Yasukuni Shrine (in which a number of war criminals are enshrined), as both a diplomatic card and a tool to make Japan a scapegoat in domestic Chinese politics.^[61] The Anti-Japanese Riots in the Spring of 2005 were another source of more anger towards China among the Japanese public. Anti-Chinese sentiments have been on a sharp rise in Japan since 2002. According to the Pew Global Attitude Project (2008), 84% of Japanese people held an unfavorable view of China and 73% of Japanese people held an unfavorable view of Chinese people, which was a higher percentage than all the other countries surveyed.^[62]

A survey in 2017 suggested that 51% of Chinese respondents had experienced tenancy discrimination.^[63] Another report in the same year noted a significant bias against Chinese visitors from the media and some of the Japanese locals.^[64]

China

Among Chinese dissidents and critics of the Chinese government, it's popular^{[according to whom?]} to express internalized racist sentiments which are based on anti-Chinese sentiment, promoting the usage of pejorative slurs (such as shina or locust),^[65]^[66]^[67] or displaying hatred towards the Chinese language, people, and culture.^[68]

Xinjiang

After the Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong to establish the PRC in 1949, there have been considerable ethnic tensions arising between the Han Chinese and Turkic Muslim Uyghurs.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73] This manifested itself in the 1997 Ghulja incident,^[74] the bloody July 2009 Ürümqi riots,^[75] and the 2014 Kunming attack.^[76] According to BBC News, this has prompted China to suppress the native population and create internment camps for purported counter-terrorism efforts, which have fuelled resentment in the region.^[77]

Tibet

Tibet has complicated relations with the rest of China. Both Tibetan and Chinese are part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and share a long history. The Tang dynasty and Tibetan Empire did enter into periods of military conflict. In the 13th century, Tibet fell under the rule of the Yuan dynasty but it ceased to be with the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. The relationship between Tibet with China remains complicated until Tibet was invaded again by the Qing dynasty. Following the British expedition to Tibet in 1904, many Tibetans look back on it as an exercise of Tibetan self-defense and an act of independence from the Qing dynasty, as the dynasty was falling apart.^[78] This event has left a dark chapter in their modern relations. The Republic of China failed to reconquer Tibet but the later People's Republic of China annexed Tibet and incorporated it as the Tibet Autonomous Region within China. The 14th Dalai Lama and Mao Zedong signed the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet, but China was accused of not honoring the treaty^[79] and led to the 1959 Tibetan uprising which was successfully suppressed by China,^[80] resulting in the Dalai Lama escaping to India.^[81]

Tibetans again rioted against other Chinese rule twice, in the 1987–1989 Tibetan unrest^[82] and 2008 unrest, where they directed their angers against Han and Hui Chinese.^[83] Both were suppressed by China and China has increased their military presence in the region, despite periodic self-immolations.^[84]

Hong Kong

Although Hong Kong's sovereignty was returned to China in 1997, only a small minority of its inhabitants consider themselves to be exclusively Chinese. According to a 2014 survey from the University of Hong Kong, 42.3% of respondents identified themselves as "Hong Kong citizens", versus only 17.8% who identified themselves as "Chinese citizens", and 39.3% gave themselves a mixed identity (a Hong Kong Chinese or a Hong Konger who was living in China).^[85] By 2019, almost no Hong Kong youth identified as Chinese.^[86]

The number of mainland Chinese visitors to the region has surged since the handover (reaching 28 million in 2011) and is perceived by many locals to be the cause of their housing and job difficulties. In addition to resentment due to political oppression, negative perceptions have grown through circulating online posts of mainlander misbehaviour,^[87] as well as discriminatory discourse in major Hong Kong newspapers.^[88]^[89] In 2013, polls from the University of Hong Kong suggested that 32 to 35.6 per cent of locals had "negative" feelings for mainland Chinese people.^[90] However, a 2019 survey of Hong Kong residents has suggested that there are also some who attribute positive stereotypes to visitors from the mainland.^[91]

In a 2015 study, mainland students in Hong Kong who initially had a more positive view of the city than of their own mainland hometowns reported that their attempts at connecting with the locals were difficult due to experiences of hostility.^[92]

In 2012, a group of Hong Kong residents published a newspaper advertisement depicting mainland visitors and immigrants as locusts.^[93] In February 2014, about 100 Hong Kongers harassed mainland tourists and shoppers during what they styled an "anti-locust" protest in Kowloon. In response, the Equal Opportunities Commission of Hong Kong proposed an extension of the territory's race-hate laws to cover mainlanders.^[94] Strong anti-mainland xenophobia has also been documented amidst the 2019 protests,^[95] with reported instances of protesters attacking Mandarin-speakers and mainland-linked businesses.^[96]^[97]

Central Asia

Kazakhstan

In 2018, massive land reform protests were held in Kazakhstan. The protesters demonstrated against the leasing of land to Chinese companies and the perceived economic dominance of Chinese companies and traders.^[98]^[99] Another issue which is leading to the rise of sinophobia in Kazakhstan is the Xinjiang conflict and Kazakhstan is responding to it by hosting a significant number of Uyghur separatists.^{[citation needed]}

Kyrgyzstan

While discussing Chinese investments in the country, a Kyrgyz farmer said, "We always run the risk of being colonized by the Chinese".^[100]

Survey data cited by the Kennan Institute from 2017 to 2019 had on average 35% of Kyrgyz respondents expressing an unfavourable view of China compared to 52% expressing a favourable view; the disapproval rating was higher than that of respondents from 3 other Central Asian countries.^[101]

Mongolia

Mongolian nationalist and Neo-Nazi groups are reported to be hostile to China,^[102] and Mongolians traditionally hold unfavorable views of the country.^[103] The common stereotype is that China is trying to undermine Mongolian sovereignty in order to eventually make it part of China (the Republic of China has claimed Mongolia as part of its territory, see Outer Mongolia). Fear and hatred of erliiz (Mongolian: эрлийз, [ˈɛrɮiːt͡sə], literally, double seeds), a derogatory term for people of mixed Han Chinese and Mongol ethnicity,^[104] is a common phenomena in Mongolian politics. Erliiz are seen as a Chinese plot of "genetic pollution" to chip away at Mongolian sovereignty, and allegations of Chinese ancestry are used as a political weapon in election campaigns. Several small Neo-Nazi groups opposing Chinese influence and mixed Chinese couples are present within Mongolia, such as Tsagaan Khas.^[102]

Tajikistan

Resentment against China and Chinese people has also increased in Tajikistan in recent years due to accusations that China has grabbed land from Tajikistan.^[105] In 2013, the Popular Tajik Social-Democrat Party leader, Rakhmatillo Zoirov, claimed that Chinese troops were violating a land-ceding arrangement by moving deeper into Tajikistan than they were supposed to.^[106]

Southeast Asia

Singapore

To counteract the city state's low birthrate, Singapore's government has been offering financial incentives and a liberal visa policy to attract an influx of migrants. Chinese immigrants to the nation grew from 150,447 in 1990 to 448,566 in 2015 to make up 18% of the foreign-born population, next to Malaysian immigrants at 44%.^[107] The xenophobia towards mainland Chinese is reported to be particularly severe compared to other foreign residents,^[108] as they are generally looked down on as country bumpkins and blamed for stealing desirable jobs and driving up housing prices.^[109] There have also been reports of housing discrimination against mainland Chinese tenants,^[110] and a 2019 YouGov poll has suggested Singapore to have the highest percentage of locals prejudiced against Chinese travellers out of the many countries surveyed.^[111]^[112]

A 2016 study found that out of 20 Chinese Singaporeans, 45% agreed that PRC migrants were rude, although only 15% expressed negative attitudes towards mainland Chinese in general.^[113] Another 2016 study of Singaporean locals and (mostly mainland) Chinese students found that most respondents in both groups said they had positive experiences with each other, with only 11% of Singaporeans saying they did not.^[114]

Malaysia

Due to race-based politics and Bumiputera policy, there had been several incidents of racial conflict between the Malays and Chinese before the 1969 riots. For example, in Penang, hostility between the races turned into violence during the centenary celebration of George Town in 1957 which resulted in several days of fighting and a number of deaths,^[115] and there were further disturbances in 1959 and 1964, as well as a riot in 1967 which originated as a protest against currency devaluation but turned into racial killings.^[116]^[117] In Singapore, the antagonism between the races led to the 1964 Race Riots which contributed to the expulsion of Singapore from Malaysia on August 9, 1965. The 13 May Incident was perhaps the deadliest race riot to have occurred in Malaysia with an official combined death toll of 196^[118] (143 Chinese, 25 Malays, 13 Indians, and 15 others of undetermined ethnicity),^[119] but with higher estimates by other observers reaching around 600-800+ total deaths.^[120]^[121]^[122]

Malaysia's ethnic quota system has been regarded as discriminatory towards the ethnic Chinese (and Indian) community, in favor of ethnic Malay Muslims,^[123] which has reportedly created a brain drain in the country. In 2015, supporters of Najib Razak's party reportedly marched in the thousands through Chinatown to support him, and assert Malay political power with threats to burn down shops, which drew criticism from China's ambassador to Malaysia.^[124]

It was reported in 2019 that relations between ethnic Chinese Malaysians and Malays were "at their lowest ebb", and fake news posted online of mainland Chinese indiscriminately receiving citizenship in the country had been stoking racial tensions. The primarily Chinese-based Democratic Action Party in Malaysia has also reportedly faced an onslaught of fake news depicting it as unpatriotic, anti-Malay, and anti-Muslim.^[125] Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been social media posts claiming the initial outbreak is "divine retribution" for China's treatment of its Muslim Uyghur population.^[126]

Cambodia

The speed of Chinese resident arrivals in Sihanoukville city has led to an increase in fear and hostility towards the new influx of Chinese residents among the local population. As of 2018, the Chinese community in the city makes up almost 20% of the town's population.^[127]

Philippines

The Spanish introduced the first anti-Chinese laws in the Philippine archipelago. The Spanish massacred or expelled the Chinese several times from Manila, and the Chinese responded by fleeing either to La Pampanga or to territories outside colonial control, particularly the Sulu Sultanate, which they in turn supported in their wars against the Spanish authorities.^[128] The Chinese refugees not only ensured that the Sūg people were supplied with the requisite arms but also joined their new compatriots in combat operations against the Spaniards during the centuries of Spanish–Moro conflict.^[129]

Furthermore, racial classification from the Spanish and American administrations has labeled ethnic Chinese as alien. This association between 'Chinese' and 'foreigner' have facilitated discrimination against the ethnic Chinese population in the Philippines; many ethnic Chinese were denied citizenship or viewed as antithetical to a Filipino nation-state.^[130] In addition to this, Chinese people have been associated with wealth in the background of great economic disparity among the local population. This perception has only contributed to ethnic tensions in the Philippines, with the ethnic Chinese population being portrayed as being a major party in controlling the economy.^[130]

The standoff in Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal between China and the Philippines contributes to anti-China sentiment among Filipinos. Campaigns to boycott Chinese products began in 2012. People protested in front of the Chinese Embassy and it led the embassy to issue a travel warning for its citizens to the Philippines for a year.^[131]

Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, scholar Jonathan Corpuz Ong has lamented that there is a great deal of hateful and racist speech on Philippine social media which "many academics and even journalists in the country have actually justified as a form of political resistance" to the Chinese government.^[132] In addition, the United States government reinforced Filipinos' suspicion of China amidst the territorial disputes by conducting a disinformation campaign that amplified Filipinos' erosion of trust in Chinese COVID-19 vaccines and pandemic supplies.^[133]

In 2024, the Chinese-Filipino community in the Philippines expressed concerns over the increased anti-Chinese sentiment from Filipinos resulting from issues surrounding the POGO businesses and investigations on the background of Alice Guo, the dismissed mayor of Bamban accused by Filipino authorities of having connections with a POGO business in the said municipality.^[134]

Indonesia

The Dutch introduced anti-Chinese laws in the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch colonialists started the first massacre of Chinese in the 1740 Batavia massacre in which tens of thousands died. The Java War (1741–43) followed shortly thereafter.^[135]^[136]^[137]^[138]^[139]

The asymmetrical economic position between ethnic Chinese Indonesians and indigenous Indonesians has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died (mostly non-Chinese Indonesians),^[140] ethnic Chinese were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.^[141]^[10] In the May 1998 riots of Indonesia following the fall of President Suharto, many ethnic Chinese were targeted by other Indonesian rioters, resulting in extensive looting. However, when Chinese-owned supermarkets were targeted for looting most of the dead were not ethnic Chinese, but the looters themselves, who were burnt to death by the hundreds when a fire broke out.^[142]^[143]

In recent years,^[when?] disputes in the South China Sea led to the renewal of tensions. At first, the conflict was contained between China and Vietnam, the Philippines and Malaysia, with Indonesia staying neutral. However, accusations about Indonesia's lack of activities to protect its fishermen from China's fishing vessels in the Natuna Sea^[144] and disinformation about Chinese foreign workers have contributed to the deterioration of China's image in Indonesia.^[145]^[146]

Coconuts Media reported in April 2022 of online groups in the country targeting Chinese-Indonesian women for racialised sexual abuse.^[147] On the other hand, a 2022 online poll done by Palacký University Olomouc had little more than 20% of Indonesian respondents viewing China negatively while over 70% held a positive view.^[148]^[149]

Myanmar

The ongoing ethnic insurgency in Myanmar and the 1967 riots in Burma against the Chinese community displeased the PRC, which led to the arming of ethnic and political rebels by China against Burma.^[150] Resentment towards Chinese investments^[151] and their perceived exploitation of natural resources have also hampered the Sino-Burmese relationship.^[152] Chinese people in Myanmar have also been subject to discriminatory laws and rhetoric in Burmese media and popular culture.^[153]

In November 2023, pro junta supporters held protests in Naypyidaw and Yangon accusing China of supporting Operation 1027 rebels,^[154]^[155] with some Yangon protesters threatening to attack China for its support.^[156]

Thailand

Historically, Thailand (called Siam before 1939) has been seen as a China-friendly country, owing to close Chinese-Siamese relations, a large proportion of the Thai population being of Chinese descent and Chinese having been assimilated into mainstream society over the years.

In 1914, King Rama VI Vajiravudh originated the phrase "Jews of the Orient" to describe Chinese.^[157]^: 127 He published an essay using Western antisemitic tropes to characterize Chinese as "vampires who steadily suck dry an unfortunate victim's lifeblood" because of their perceived lack of loyalty to Siam and the fact that they sent money back to China.^[157]^: 127

Later, Plaek Phibunsongkhram launched a massive Thaification, the main purpose of which was Central Thai supremacy, including the oppression of Thailand's Chinese population and restricting Thai Chinese culture by banning the teaching of the Chinese language and forcing Thai Chinese to adopt Thai names.^[158] Plaek's obsession with creating a pan-Thai nationalist agenda caused resentment among general officers (most of Thai general officers at the time were of Teochew background) until he was removed from office in 1944.^[159] Since that, mainstream culture of the nation from the Central Thai people was replaced by Thai Chinese, and Central Thai face discrimination instead, although the Cold War may have inflamed hostility towards the mainland Chinese.^{[citation needed]}

Hostility towards the mainland Chinese increased with the increase of visitors from China in 2013.^[160]^[161] It has also been worsened by Thai news reports and social media postings on misbehaviour from a portion of the tourists.^[162]^[163] In spite of this, some reports have suggested that there are still some Thais who have positive impressions of Chinese tourists.^[164]

Vietnam

There are strong anti-Chinese sentiments among the Vietnamese population, stemming in part from a past thousand years of Chinese rule in Northern Vietnam. A long history of Sino-Vietnamese conflicts followed, with repeated wars over the centuries. Though current relations are peaceful, numerous wars were fought between the two nations in the past, from the time of the Early Lê dynasty (10th century)^[165] to the Sino-Vietnamese War from 1979 to 1989.

Shortly after the 1975 Vietnamese defeat of the United States in the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese government persecuted the Chinese community by confiscating property and businesses owned by overseas Chinese in Vietnam and expelling the ethnic Chinese minority into southern Chinese provinces.^[166] In February 1976, Vietnam implemented registration programs in the south.^[167]^: 94 Ethnic Chinese in Vietnam were required to adopt Vietnamese citizenship or leave the country.^[167]^: 94 In early 1977, Vietnam implemented what it described as a purification policy in its border areas to keep Chinese border residents to the Chinese side of the border.^[167]^: 94–95 Following another discriminatory policy introduced in March 1978, a large number of Chinese fled from Vietnam to southern China.^[167]^: 95 China and Vietnam attempted to negotiate issues related to Vietnam's treatment of ethnic Chinese, but these negotiations failed to resolve the issues.^[167]^: 95 During the August 1978 Youyi Pass Incident, the Vietnamese army and police expelled 2,500 refugees across the order into China.^[167]^: 95 Vietnamese authorities beat and stabbed refugees during the incident, including 9 Chinese civilian border workers.^[167]^: 95 From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat (mainly former South Vietnam citizens fleeing the Vietcong) as refugees or were expelled across the land border with China.^[168]

The 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in part from Vietnam's mistreatment of ethnic Chinese.^[167]^: 93 The conflict fueled racist discrimination against and consequent emigration by the country's ethnic Chinese population.These mass emigrations and deportations only stopped in 1989 following the Đổi mới reforms in Vietnam.^{[citation needed]} The two countries' shared history includes territorial disputes, with conflict over the Paracel and Spratly Islands reaching a peak between 1979 and 1991.^[169]^[170]^[171]

Anti-Chinese sentiments had spiked in 2007 after China formed an administration in the disputed islands,^[170] in 2009 when the Vietnamese government allowed the Chinese aluminium manufacturer Chinalco the rights to mine for bauxite in the Central Highlands,^[172]^[173]^[174] and when Vietnamese fishermen were detained by Chinese security forces while seeking refuge in the disputed territories.^[175] In 2011, following a spat in which a Chinese Marine Surveillance ship damaged a Vietnamese geologic survey ship off the coast of Vietnam, some Vietnamese travel agencies boycotted Chinese destinations or refused to serve customers with Chinese citizenship.^[176] Hundreds of people protested in front of the Chinese embassy in Hanoi and the Chinese consulate in Ho Chi Minh City against Chinese naval operations in the South China Sea before being dispersed by the police.^[177] In May 2014, mass anti-Chinese protests against China moving an oil platform into disputed waters escalated into riots in which many Chinese factories and workers were targeted. In 2018, thousands of people nationwide protested against a proposed law regarding Special Economic Zones that would give foreign investors 99-year leases on Vietnamese land, fearing that it would be dominated by Chinese investors.^[178]

According to journalist Daniel Gross, anti-Chinese sentiment is omnipresent in modern Vietnam, where "from school kids to government officials, China-bashing is very much in vogue." He reports that a majority of Vietnamese resent the import and usage of Chinese products, considering them of distinctly low status.^[179] A 2013 book on varying host perceptions in global tourism has also referenced negativity from Vietnamese hosts towards Chinese tourists, where the latter were seen as "making a lot more requests, complaints and troubles than other tourists"; the views differed from the much more positive perceptions of young Tibetan hosts at Lhasa towards mainland Chinese visitors in 2011.^[180]

In 2019, Chinese media was accused by the local press of appropriating or claiming Áo Dài, which angered many Vietnamese.^[181]^[182]

South Asia

Afghanistan

According to The Diplomat in 2014, the Xinjiang conflict had increased anti-China sentiment in Afghanistan.^[183] A 2020 Gallup International poll of 44 countries found that 46% of Afghans viewed China's foreign policy as destabilizing to the world, compared to 48% who viewed it as stabilizing.^[184]^[185]

Nepal

Chinese outlet CGTN published a tweet about Mount Everest, calling it Mount Qomolangma in the Tibetan language and saying it was located in China's Tibet Autonomous Region, which caused displeasure from Nepalese and Indian Twitter users, who tweeted that China is trying to claim the mount from Nepal.^[186] CGTN then corrected the tweet to say it was located on the China-Nepal border.^[187]

Bhutan

The relationship between Bhutan and China has historically been tense and past events have led to anti-Chinese sentiment within the country. Notably, the Chinese government's destruction of Tibetan Buddhist institutions in Tibet in 1959 led to a wave of anti-Chinese sentiment in the country.^[188] In 1960, the PRC published a map in A Brief History of China, depicting a sizable portion of Bhutan as "a pre-historical realm of China" and released a statement claiming the Bhutanese "form a united family in Tibet" and "they must once again be united and taught the communist doctrine". Bhutan responded by closing off its border, trade, and all diplomatic contacts with China. Bhutan and China have not established diplomatic relations.^[189] Recent efforts between the two countries to improve relations have been hampered by India's strong influence on Bhutan.^[190]^[191]

Sri Lanka

There were protests against allowing China to build a port and industrial zone, which will require the eviction of thousands of villagers around Hambantota.^[192] Projects on the Hambantota port have led to fears among the local protestors that the area will become a "Chinese colony".^[193] Armed government supporters clashed with protestors from the opposition that were led by Buddhist monks.^[193]

India

During the Sino-Indian War, the Chinese faced hostile sentiment all over India. Chinese businesses were investigated for links to the Chinese government and many Chinese were interned in prisons in North India.^{[citation needed]} The Indian government passed the Defence of India Act in December 1962,^[194] permitting the "apprehension and detention in custody of any person hostile to the country." The broad language of the act allowed for the arrest of any person simply for having a Chinese surname or a Chinese spouse.^[195] The Indian government incarcerated thousands of Chinese-Indians in an internment camp in Deoli, Rajasthan, where they were held for years without trial. The last internees were not released until 1967. Thousands more Chinese-Indians were forcibly deported or coerced to leave India. Nearly all internees had their properties sold off or looted.^[194] Even after their release, the Chinese Indians faced many restrictions on their freedom. They could not travel freely until the mid-1990s.^[194]

On 2014, India in conjunction with the Tibetan government-in-exile have called for a campaign to boycott Chinese goods due in part to the contested border disputes India has with China.^[196]^[197]

The 2020 China–India skirmishes resulted in the deaths 20 Indian soldiers and an undisclosed number of Chinese soldiers, in hand-to-hand combat using improvised weapons.^[198]

Following the skirmishes, a company from Jaipur, India developed an app named "Remove China Apps" and released it on the Google Play Store, gaining 5 million downloads in less than two weeks. It discouraged software dependence on China and promoted apps developed in India. Afterwards, people began uninstalling Chinese apps like SHAREit and CamScanner.^[199]

Oceania

Australia

The Chinese population was active in political and social life in Australia. Community leaders protested against discriminatory legislation and attitudes, and despite the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, Chinese communities around Australia participated in parades and celebrations of Australia's Federation and the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York.

Although the Chinese communities in Australia were generally peaceful and industrious, resentment flared up against them because of their different customs and traditions. In the mid-19th century, terms such as "dirty, disease-ridden, [and] insect-like" were used in Australia and New Zealand to describe the Chinese.^[200]

A poll tax was passed in Victoria in 1855 to restrict Chinese immigration. New South Wales, Queensland and Western Australia followed suit. Such legislation did not distinguish between naturalised, British citizens, Australian-born, and Chinese-born individuals. The tax in Victoria and New South Wales was repealed in the 1860s.

In the 1870s and 1880s, the Growing trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. Their arguments were that Asians and Chinese took jobs away from white men, worked for "substandard" wages, lowered working conditions, and refused unionisation.^[201] Objections to these arguments came largely from wealthy land owners in rural areas.^[201] It was argued that without Asiatics to work in the tropical areas of the Northern Territory and Queensland, the area would have to be abandoned.^[202] Despite these objections to restricting immigration, between 1875 and 1888 all Australian colonies enacted legislation that excluded all further Chinese immigration.^[202]

In 1888, following protests and strike actions, an inter-colonial conference agreed to reinstate and increase the severity of restrictions on Chinese immigration. This provided the basis for the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the seed for the White Australia Policy, which although relaxed over time, was not fully abandoned until the early 1970s.

The Chifley government's Darwin Lands Acquisition Act 1945 compulsorily acquired 53 acres (21 ha) of land owned by Chinese-Australians in Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory, leading to the end of the local Chinatown. Two years earlier, the territory's administrator Aubrey Abbott had written to Joseph Carrodus, secretary of the Department of the Interior, proposing a combination of compulsory acquisition and conversion of the land to leasehold in order to effect "the elimination of undesirable elements which Darwin has suffered from far too much in the past" and stated that he hoped to "entirely prevent the Chinese quarter forming again". He further observed that "if land is acquired from the former Chinese residents there is really no need for them to return as they have no other assets". The territory's civilian population had mostly been evacuated during the war and the former Chinatown residents returned to find their homes and businesses reduced to rubble.^[203]

A number of cases have been reported, related to sinophobia in the country.^[204] Recently, in February 2013, a Chinese football team had reported about the abuses and racism they suffered on Australia Day.^[11]

There have been a spate of racist anti-Chinese graffiti and posters in universities across Melbourne and Sydney which host a large number of Chinese students. In July and August 2017, hate-filled posters were plastered around Monash University and University of Melbourne which said, in Mandarin, that Chinese students were not allowed to enter the premises, or else they would face deportation, while a "kill Chinese" graffiti, decorated with swastikas was found at University of Sydney.^[205]^[206] The Antipodean Resistance, a white supremacist group that identifies itself as pro-Nazi, claimed responsibility for the posters on Twitter. The group's website contains anti-Chinese slurs and Nazi imagery.^[207]

New Zealand

In the 1800s, Chinese citizens were encouraged to immigrate to New Zealand because they were needed to fulfill agricultural jobs during a time of white labor shortage. The arrival of foreign laborers was met with hostility and the formation of anti-Chinese immigrant groups, such as the Anti-Chinese League, the Anti-Asiatic League, the Anti-Chinese Association, and the White New Zealand League. Official discrimination began with the Chinese Immigrants Act of 1881, limiting Chinese emigration to New Zealand and excluding Chinese citizens from major jobs. Anti-Chinese sentiment had declined by the mid-20th century, however it has recently been inflamed by the perception that Chinese immigrants have driven up housing prices.^[208] Today, anti-Chinese sentiment in New Zealand mainly concerns the issue of housing prices.^[208] K. Emma Ng reported that "One in two New Zealanders feel the recent arrival of Asian migrants is changing the country in undesirable ways." There are considerable numbers of Asians who express anti-Chinese sentiment in New Zealand, which Ng attributes to internalized self hatred.^[208]

Attitudes on Chinese in New Zealand are suggested to be fairly negative, with some Chinese still considered to be less respected people in the country.^[209]

Papua New Guinea

In May 2009, during the Papua New Guinea riots, Chinese-owned businesses were looted by gangs in the capital city Port Moresby, amid simmering anti-Chinese sentiment reported in the country.^[210] There are fears that these riots will force many Chinese business owners and entrepreneurs to leave the South Pacific country, which would invariably lead to further damage on an impoverished economy that had a 80% unemployment rate.^[210] Thousands of people were reportedly involved in the riots.^[211]

Tonga

In 2000, Tongan noble Tu'ivakano of Nukunuku banned Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District in Tonga. This followed complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.^[212]

In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.^[213]^[214]

Solomon Islands

In 2006, Honiara's Chinatown suffered damage when it was looted and burned by rioters following a contested election. Ethnic Chinese businessmen were falsely blamed for bribing members of the Solomon Islands' Parliament. The government of Taiwan was the one that supported the then-current government of the Solomon Islands. The Chinese businessmen were mainly small traders from mainland China and had no interest in local politics.^[213]

Western Asia

Israel

Israel and China have a stable relationship, and a 2018 survey suggested that a significant percentage of the Israeli population have a positive view of Chinese culture and people.^[215] This is historically preceded by Chinese support for Jewish refugees fleeing from Europe amidst World War II.^[216] Within China, Jews gained praise for their successful integration, with a number of Jewish refugees advising Mao's government and leading developments in revolutionary China's health service and infrastructure.^[217]^[218]^[219]

However, these close relations between the early Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the small Jewish-Chinese community have been hampered in recent years under the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping and rise of nationalist sentiment in China, with Jews monitored since 2016, an occurrence reported widely in Israeli media.^[220]^[221] This has led to some Sinophobic sentiments in Israel, with Israeli nationalists viewing China a despotic and authoritarian regime, given the ongoing repression of Jews in China.^[220]^{[failed verification]}

Turkey

On July 4, 2015, a group of around 2,000 Turkish ultra-nationalists from the Grey Wolves linked to Turkey's MHP (Nationalist Movement Party) protesting against China's alleged fasting ban in Xinjiang mistakenly attacked South Korean tourists in Istanbul,^[222]^[223] which led to China issuing a travel warning to its citizens traveling to Turkey.^[224] Devlet Bahçeli, a leader from MHP, said that the attacks by MHP affiliated Turkish youth on South Korean tourists was "understandable", telling the Turkish newspaper Hurriyet that: "What feature differentiates a Korean from a Chinese? They see that they both have slanted eyes. How can they tell the difference?".^[225]

A Uyghur employee at a Chinese restaurant was attacked in 2015 by the Turkish Grey Wolves-linked protesters.^[226] Attacks on other Chinese nationals have been reported.^[227]

According to a November 2018 INR poll, 46% of Turks view China favourably, up from less than 20% in 2015. A further 62% thought that it is important to have a strong trade relationship with China.^[228]

Europe

China has figured in Western imagination in a number of different ways as being a very large civilization existing for many centuries with a very large population; however the rise of the People's Republic of China after the Chinese Civil War has dramatically changed the perception of China from a relatively positive light to negative because of anti-communism in the West, and reports of human rights abuses from China.

Anti-Chinese sentiment became more common as China was becoming a major source of immigrants for the west (including the American West).^[12] Numerous Chinese immigrants to North America were attracted by wages offered by large railway companies in the late 19th century as the companies built the transcontinental railroads.

Anti-Chinese policies persisted in the 20th century in the English-speaking world, including the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, anti-Chinese zoning laws and restrictive covenants, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy

Czech Republic

Anti-Chinese sentiment has experienced a new growth due to closer ties between the Czech Republic and Taiwan and led to a deterioration of the Czech Republic's relations with China.^[229]^[230] Czech politicians have demanded China to replace its ambassador and criticizing the Chinese government for its alleged threats against the Czech Republic, further worsening China's perception in the country.^[231]

France

In France, there has been a long history of systemic racism towards the Chinese population, with many people stereotyping them as easy targets for crime.^[232] As a result, France's ethnic Chinese population have been common victims of racism and crime, which include assaults, robbery, and murder; it is common for Chinese business owners to have their businesses robbed and destroyed.^[232] There have been rising incidents of anti-Chinese racism in France; many Chinese, including French celebrity Frederic Chau, want more support from the French government.^[233] In September 2016, at least 15,000 Chinese participated in an anti-Asian racism protest in Paris.^[232]

French farmers protested after a Chinese investor purchased 2,700 hectares of agricultural land in France.^[234] A 2018 survey by Institut Montaigne has suggested that Chinese investments in France are viewed more negatively than Chinese tourism to the country, with 50% of respondents holding negative views of the former.^[235] 43% of the French see China as an economic threat, an opinion that is common among older and right-wing people, and 40% of French people view China as a technological threat.^[235]

It was reported in 2017 that there was some negativity among Parisians towards Chinese visitors,^[236] but other surveys have suggested that they are not viewed worse than a number of other groups.^[237]^[238]^[239]

Germany

In 2016, Günther Oettinger, the former European Commissioner for Digital Economy and Society, called Chinese people derogatory names, including "sly dogs", in a speech to executives in Hamburg and had refused to apologize for several days.^{[citation needed]} Two surveys have suggested that a percentage of Germans hold negative views towards Chinese travellers, although it is not as bad as a few other groups.^[240]^[241]^[242]

Italy

Although historical relations between two were friendly and even Marco Polo paid a visit to China, during the Boxer Rebellion, Italy was part of Eight-Nation Alliance against the rebellion, thus this had stemmed anti-Chinese sentiment in Italy.^[243] Italian troops looted, burnt, and stole a lot of Chinese goods to Italy, many are still being displayed in Italian museums.^[244]

In 2010, in the Italian town of Prato, it was reported that many Chinese people were working in sweatshop-like conditions that broke European laws and that many Chinese-owned businesses don't pay taxes.^[245] Textile products produced by Chinese-owned businesses in Italy are labeled as 'Made in Italy', but some of the businesses engaged in practices that reduce cost and increase output to the point where locally owned businesses can't compete with. As a result of these practices, the 2009 municipal elections led the local population to vote for the Lega Nord, a party known for its anti-immigrant stance.^[245]

Portugal

In the 16th century, increasing sea trades between Europe to China had led Portuguese merchants to China, however Portuguese military ambitions for power and its fear of China's interventions and brutality had led to the growth of sinophobia in Portugal. Galiote Pereira, a Portuguese Jesuit missionary who was imprisoned by Chinese authorities, claimed China's juridical treatment known as bastinado was so horrible as it hit on human flesh, becoming the source of fundamental anti-Chinese sentiment later; as well as brutality, the cruelty of China and Chinese tyranny.^[246] With the Ming dynasty's brutal reactions on Portuguese merchants following the conquest of Malacca,^[247] sinophobia became widespread in Portugal, and widely practiced until the First Opium War, which the Qing dynasty was forced to cede Macao to Portugal.^[248]^{[note 2]}

Russia

After the Sino-Soviet split the Soviet Union produced propaganda which depicted the PRC and the Chinese people as enemies. Soviet propaganda specifically framed the PRC as an enemy of Islam and all Turkic peoples. These phobias have been inherited by the post-Soviet states in Central Asia.^[249]

Although Russia had inherited a long-standing dispute over territory with China over Siberia and the Russian Far East with the breakup of the Soviet Union, these disputes were formerly resolved in 2004. Russia and China no longer have territorial disputes and China does not claim land in Russia; however, there has also been a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.^[250]^[251] Both nations have become increasingly friendlier however, in the aftermath of the 1999 US bombing of Serbia, which the Chinese embassy was struck with a bomb, and have become increasingly united in foreign policy regarding perceived western antipathy.^[252]^[253]

A 2019 survey of online Russians has suggested that in terms of sincerity, trustfulness, and warmth, the Chinese are not viewed especially negatively or positively compared to the many other nationalities and ethnic groups in the study.^[254]^[255] An October 2020 poll from the Central European Institute of Asian Studies^[256] found that although China was perceived positively by 59.5% of Russian respondents (which was higher than for the other 11 regions asked), 57% of respondents regarded Chinese enterprises in the Russian far east to varying degrees as a threat to the local environment.^[257]

Spain

Spain first issued anti-Chinese legislation when Limahong, a Chinese pirate, attacked Spanish settlements in the Philippines. One of his famous actions was a failed invasion of Manila in 1574, which he launched with the support of Chinese and Moro pirates.^[258] The Spanish conquistadors massacred the Chinese or expelled them from Manila several times, notably the autumn 1603 massacre of Chinese in Manila, and the reasons for this uprising remain unclear. Its motives range from the desire of the Chinese to dominate Manila, to their desire to abort the Spaniards' moves which seemed to lead to their elimination. The Spaniards quelled the rebellion and massacred around 20,000 Chinese. The Chinese responded by fleeing to the Sulu Sultanate and supporting the Moro Muslims in their war against the Spanish. The Chinese supplied the Moros with weapons and joined them in directly fighting against the Spanish during the Spanish–Moro conflict. Spain also upheld a plan to conquer China, but it never materialized.^[259]

A Central European Institute of Asian Studies poll in 2020^[256] found that although Spaniards had worsening views of China amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, it did not apply to Chinese citizens where most respondents reported positive views of Chinese tourists, students, and the general community in Spain.^[260]

Sweden

In 2018, a family of Chinese tourists was removed from a hostel in Stockholm, which led to a diplomatic spat between China and Sweden. China accused the Swedish police of maltreatment as Stockholm's chief prosecutor chose not to investigate the incident.^[261] A comedy skit later aired on Svenska Nyheter mocking the tourists and playing on racial stereotypes of Chinese people.^[262]^[263] After the producers uploaded the skit to Youku, it drew anger and accusations of racism on Chinese social media,^[264] the latter of which was also echoed in a letter to the editor from a Swedish-Chinese scholar^[265] to Dagens Nyheter.^[266] Chinese citizens were called on to boycott Sweden.^[267] The next year, Jesper Rönndahl, the host of the skit, was honoured by Swedish newspaper Kvällsposten as "Scanian of the Year".^[268]

Relations further worsened after the reported kidnap and arrest of China-born Swedish citizen and bookseller Gui Minhai by Chinese authorities, which led to three Swedish opposition parties calling for the expulsion of China's ambassador to Sweden, Gui Congyou, who had been accused of threatening several Swedish media outlets.^[269]^[270] Several Swedish cities cut ties with China's cities in February 2020 amid deteriorating relations.^[271] In May 2020, Sweden decided to shut down all Confucius Institutes in the country, citing the Chinese government's meddling in education affairs.^[272] Some Chinese in Sweden have also reported increased stigmatisation during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[273] A 2021 YouGov poll had 77% of Swedish respondents expressing an unfavourable view of China, with no other country more negatively viewed in Sweden except for Iran and Saudi Arabia.^[274]

Ukraine

During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the pro-Russian Chinese government media stance along with reports of chauvinistic comments about Ukrainian women and pro-Russian sentiment by some Chinese netizens led to the fueling of anti-Chinese sentiment in Ukraine. In response, the Embassy of China in Kyiv, which originally encouraged citizens to display Chinese flags on their cars for protection while leaving Ukraine, quickly urged them not to identify themselves or sport any signs of national identity.^[275]^[276] In a 2023 Razumkov Centre opinion poll 60% of Ukrainians had a negative view of China^[277] - up from 14% in 2019.^[278]

United Kingdom

15% of ethnic Chinese reported racial harassment in 2016, which was the highest percentage out of all ethnic minorities in the UK.^[279] The Chinese community has been victims of racially-aggravated attacks and murders, verbal accounts of racism, and vandalism. There is also a lack of reporting on anti-Chinese discrimination in the UK, notably violence against Chinese Britons.^[280]

The ethnic slur "chink" has been used against the Chinese community; Dave Whelan, the former owner of Wigan Athletic, was fined £50,000 and suspended for six weeks by The Football Association after using the term in an interview; Kerry Smith resigned as an election candidate after it was reported he used similar language.^[280]

Professor Gary Craig from Durham University carried out research about the Chinese population in the UK, and concluded that hate crimes against the Chinese community are getting worse, adding that British Chinese people experience "perhaps even higher levels of racial violence or harassment than those experienced by any other minority group but that the true extent to their victimization is often overlooked because victims were unwilling to report it."^[280] Official police victim statistics put Chinese people in a group that includes other ethnicities, making it difficult to understand the extent of the crimes against the Chinese community.^[280]

Americas

Argentina

Since the 1990s there has been a large wave of immigration of Chinese citizens, mainly from Fujian province. The main business in which the Chinese are dedicated in Argentina is grocery stores and on several occasions they have been accused of unplugging the refrigerators of fresh products during the night to pay cheaper electricity bills. During the social outbreak of 2001, derived from the economic crisis of that year in Argentina, several Chinese-owned supermarkets were attacked.^[281]

Brazil

Chinese investments in Brazil have been largely influenced by this^{[clarification needed]} negative impression.^[282]

Canada

In the 1850s, sizable numbers of Chinese immigrants came to British Columbia during the gold rush; the region was known to them as Gold Mountain. Starting in 1858, Chinese "coolies" were brought to Canada to work in the mines and on the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they were denied by law the rights of citizenship, including the right to vote, and in the 1880s, "head taxes" were implemented to curtail immigration from China. In 1907, a riot in Vancouver targeted Chinese and Japanese-owned businesses. In 1923, the federal government banned Chinese immigration outright,^[32]^: 31 passing the Chinese Immigration Act, commonly known as the Exclusion Act, prohibiting further Chinese immigration except under "special circumstances". The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1947, the same year in which Chinese Canadians were given the right to vote. Restrictions would continue to exist on immigration from Asia until 1967 when all racial restrictions on immigration to Canada were repealed, and Canada adopted the current points-based immigration system. On June 22, 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered an apology and compensation only for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants.^[283] Survivors or their spouses were paid approximately CA$20,000 in compensation.^[284]

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada has been fueled by allegations of extreme real estate price distortion resulting from Chinese demand, purportedly forcing locals out of the market.^[285]

Mexico

Anti-Chinese sentiment was first recorded in Mexico in 1880s. Similar to most Western countries at the time, Chinese immigration and its large business involvement have always been a fear for native Mexicans. Violence against Chinese occurred such as in Sonora, Baja California and Coahuila, the most notable was the Torreón massacre.^[286]

Peru

Peru was a popular destination for Chinese slaves in the 19th century, as part of the wider blackbirding phenomenon, due to the need in Peru for a military and laborer workforce. However, relations between Chinese workers and Peruvian owners have been tense, due to the mistreatment of Chinese laborers and anti-Chinese discrimination in Peru.^[33]

Due to the Chinese support for Chile throughout the War of the Pacific, relations between Peruvians and Chinese became increasingly tenser in the aftermath. After the war, armed indigenous peasants sacked and occupied haciendas of landed elite criollo "collaborationists" in the central Sierra – the majority of them were of ethnic Chinese, while indigenous and mestizo Peruvians murdered Chinese shopkeepers in Lima; in response to Chinese coolies revolted and even joined the Chilean Army.^[287]^[288] Even in the 20th century, the memory of Chinese support for Chile was so deep that Manuel A. Odría, once dictator of Peru, issued a ban against Chinese immigration as a punishment for their betrayal.^[289]

United States

Starting with the California Gold Rush in the 19th century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. Employers believed that the Chinese were "reliable" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under harsh conditions.^[290] The migrant workers encountered considerable prejudice in the United States, especially among the people who occupied the lower layers of white society, because Chinese "coolies" were used as scapegoats for depressed wage levels by politicians and labor leaders.^[291] Cases of physical assaults on the Chinese include the Chinese massacre of 1871 in Los Angeles. The 1909 murder of Elsie Sigel in New York, for which a Chinese person was suspected, was blamed on the Chinese in general and it immediately led to physical violence against them. "The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States."^[292]

The emerging American trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position,^[293] regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union, IWW, did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as part of the American working class.^[294]

In the 1870s and 1880s, various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China.^[31] although the laws were later repealed by the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. In particular, even in his lone dissent against Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), then-Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan wrote of the Chinese as: "a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."^[295]

In April 2008, CNN's Jack Cafferty remarked: "We continue to import their junk with the lead paint on them and the poisoned pet food [...] So I think our relationship with China has certainly changed. I think they're basically the same bunch of goons and thugs they've been for the last 50 years." At least 1,500 Chinese Americans protested outside CNN's Hollywood offices in response while a similar protest took place at CNN headquarters in Atlanta.^[296]^[297]

In the 2010 United States elections, a significant number^[298] of negative advertisements from both major political parties focused on a candidates' alleged support for free trade with China which were criticized by Jeff Yang for promoting anti-Chinese xenophobia.^[299] Some of the stock images that accompanied ominous voiceovers about China were actually of Chinatown, San Francisco.^[299] These advertisements included one produced by Citizens Against Government Waste called "Chinese Professor", which portrayed a 2030 conquest of the West by China and an ad by Congressman Zack Space attacking his opponent for supporting free trade agreements like NAFTA, which the ad had claimed caused jobs to be outsourced to China.^[300]

In October 2013, a child actor on Jimmy Kimmel Live! jokingly suggested in a skit that the U.S. could solve its debt problems by "kill[ing] everyone in China."^[301]^[302]

Donald Trump, the 45th President of the United States, was accused of promoting sinophobia throughout his campaign for the Presidency in 2016.^[303]^[304] and it was followed by his imposition of trade tariffs on Chinese goods, which was seen as a declaration of a trade war and another anti-Chinese act.^[305] The deterioration of relations has led to a spike in anti-Chinese sentiment in the US.^[306]^[307]

According to a Pew Research Center poll which was conducted in April 2022, 82% of Americans have unfavorable opinions of China, including 40% who have very unfavorable views of the country.^[308] In recent years, however, Americans increasingly see China as a competitor, not as an enemy.^[308] 62% view China as a competitor and 25% an enemy, with 10% seeing China as a partner.^[308] In January 2022, only 54% chose competitor and 35% said enemy, almost the same distribution as the prior year.^[308]

It has been noted that there is a negative bias in American reporting on China.^[309]^[297]^[310] Many Americans, including American-born Chinese, have continuously held prejudices toward mainland Chinese people^[311]^[312] which include perceived rudeness and unwillingness to stand in line,^[313]^[314] even though there are sources that have reported contrary to those stereotypes.^[315]^[316]^[317]^[318]^[319]^{[excessive citations]} However, the results of a survey which was conducted in 2019 have revealed that some Americans still hold positive views of Chinese visitors to the US.^[320]

A Pew Research poll which was conducted in the US in March 2021 revealed that 55% of respondents supported the imposition of limits on the number of Chinese students who are allowed to study in the country.^[321]

In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of laws which explicitly discriminate against Chinese people in the United States. For example, in 2023, Florida introduced a law which bans Chinese nationals from owning property in the state, a law that has been compared to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.^[322]

Africa

Anti-Chinese populism has been an emerging presence in some African countries.^[323] There have been reported incidents of Chinese workers and business-owners being attacked by locals in some parts of the continent.^[324]^[325] Following reports of evictions, discrimination and other mistreatment of Africans in Guangzhou during the COVID-19 pandemic,^[326] a group of diplomats from different African countries wrote a letter to express their displeasure over the treatment of their citizens.^[327]

Kenya

In areas where Chinese contractors are building infrastructure, there has been an increase in Anti-Chinese sentiment among Kenyan youths. Kenyan youths have attacked Chinese contract workers, and accused them of denying local workers of job opportunities.^[328]^{[better source needed]}

Ghana

A sixteen-year-old illegal Chinese miner was shot in 2012 while trying to escape arrest, an event that led Chinese miners to subsequently begin arming themselves with rifles.^[329]

Zambia

In 2006, Chinese businesses were targeted in riots by angry crowds after the electoral defeat of the anti-China Patriotic Front. According to Rohit Negi of Ambedkar University Delhi, "the popular opposition to China in Zambia is linked to a surge in economic nationalism and new challenges to the neoliberal orthodoxy."^[330] Zambia's ruling government accused the opposition of fueling xenophobic attacks against Chinese nationals.^[331] A 2016 study from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology suggested though that locals held more nuanced views of Chinese people, ranking them not as highly as Caucasians, but also less negatively than Lebanese, and to some extent, Indian people.^[332]

South Africa

In 2016, the South African government planned to offer Mandarin as an additional optional language along with German, Serbian, Italian, Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.^[333] However, the teachers union in South Africa accused the government of surrendering to Chinese imperialism.^[333] As of 2017, there were 53 schools that offered Mandarin in the country.^[334]

The Chinese have been victims of robberies and hijackings, and as the South African economy worsens, the hostility towards the Chinese and other foreigners has increased.^[335]

Depiction of China and Chinese in media

Depictions of China and Chinese in Anglophone media have been a somewhat underreported subject in general, but most are mainly negative coverage.^[297] In 2016, Hong Kong's L. K. Cheah said to South China Morning Post that Western journalists who regard China's motives with suspicion and cynicism cherry-pick facts based on a biased view, and the misinformation that they produce as a result is unhelpful and sympathetic of the resentment against China.^[336]

According to China Daily, a nationalist daily newspaper in China, Hollywood is accused of negative portrayals of Chinese in movies, such as bandits, thugs, criminals, gangsters, dangerous, cold-blooded, weak, and cruel;^[337] while American, as well as European, or Asian characters in general, are depicted as saviors. Even anti-Chinese whitewashing in film is common. Matt Damon, the American actor who appeared in The Great Wall, has also faced criticism that he had participated in "whitewashing" through his involvement in the historical epic and Hollywood-Chinese co-produced movie, which he denied.^[338]

In practice, anti-Chinese political rhetoric usually puts emphasis on highlighting policies and alleged practices of the Chinese government that are criticised internally – corruption, human rights issues, unfair trade, censorship, violence, military expansionism, political interferences, and historical imperialist legacies. It is often in line with independent media opposing the Chinese government in mainland China as well as in the Special Administrative Regions of China, Hong Kong, and Macau.^{[citation needed]} In defence of this rhetoric, some sources critical of the Chinese government claim that it is Chinese state-owned media and administration who attempt to discredit the "neutral" criticism by generalizing it into indiscriminate accusations of the whole Chinese population, and targeting those who criticize the regime^[339] - or sinophobia.^[340]^[341]^[342] Some have argued, however, that the Western media, similar to Russia's depictions, does not make enough distinction between CPC's regime and China and the Chinese, thus effectively vilifying the whole nation.^[343]

Impact on Chinese student populations

On occasion, Chinese students in the West are stereotyped as lacking in critical thinking skills and prone to plagiarism, or as harming the educational environment.^[344]

Historical acts of Sinophobic violence

List of non-Chinese "sinophobia-led" acts of violence against ethnic Chinese:

Australia

Indonesia

Malaysia

13 May incident

Japan

By Koreans

Wanpaoshan Incident, on July 1, 1931

United States

Vietnam

Derogatory terms

There are a variety of derogatory terms for China and Chinese people. Many of these terms are racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Chinese ethnicity as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.

In English

Eh Tiong (阿中) – refers specifically to Chinese nationals. Primarily used in Singapore to differentiate between the Singaporeans of Chinese heritage and Chinese nationals. From Hokkien 中, an abbreviation of 中國 ("China"). Considered offensive.
Cheena – same usage as 'Eh Tiong' in Singapore. Compare Shina (支纳).
Chinaman – the term Chinaman is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries, dictionaries of slurs and euphemisms, and guidelines for racial harassment.
Ching chong – Used to mock people of Chinese descent and the Chinese language, or other East and Southeast Asian-looking people in general.
Ching chang chong – same usage as 'ching chong'.
Chink – a racial slur referring to a person of Chinese ethnicity, but could be directed towards anyone of East and Southeast Asian descent in general.
Chinky – the name "Chinky" is the adjectival form of Chink and, like Chink, is an ethnic slur for Chinese occasionally directed towards other East and Southeast Asian people.
Chonky – refers to a person of Chinese heritage with white attributes whether being a personality aspect or physical aspect.^[346]^[347]
Coolie – means laborer in reference to Chinese manual workers in the 19th and early 20th century.
Slope – used to mock people of Chinese descent and the sloping shape of their skull, or other East Asians. Used commonly during the Vietnam War.
Chicom – used to refer to a Communist Chinese.
Panface – used to mock the flat facial features of the Chinese and other people of East and Southeast Asian descent.
Lingling – used to call someone of Chinese descent in the West.
Chinazi – a recent anti-Chinese sentiment which compares China to Nazi Germany, combining the words "China" and "Nazi". First published by Chinese dissident Yu Jie,^[348]^[349] it became frequently used during Hong Kong protests against the Chinese government.^[350]^[351]
Made in China – used to mock low-quality products, even to dismiss high-quality products that happen to be made in China. Term can extend to other pejoratively perceived aspects of the country.^[126]
Wumao - used in online communities to accuse users of being government-sponsored propagandists, referring to the 50 Cent Party.

In Filipino

Intsik (Cebuan: Insik) is used to refer to refer people of Chinese ancestry including Chinese Filipinos. (The standard term is Tsino, derived from the Spanish chino, with the colloquial Tsinoy referring specifically to Chinese Filipinos.) The originally neutral term recently gained negative connotation with the increasing preference of Chinese Filipinos not to be referred to as Intsik. The term originally came from in chiek, a Hokkien term referring to one's uncle. The term has variations, which may be more offensive in tone such as Intsik baho and may used in a derogatory phrase, Intsik baho tulo-laway ("Smelly old Chinaman with drooling saliva").^[352]^[353]
Tsekwa (sometimes spelled chekwa) – is a slang term used by the Filipinos to refer to Chinese people.^[354]

In French

Chinetoque (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Asian people, especially of those from China and Vietnam.

In Indonesian

Chitato – (China Tanpa Toko) – literally "Chinese people don't have shops" referring to ridicule for Indonesian Chinese descent who do not own shops.
Aseng – A play on the word "asing" which means "foreigner" is used by local natives in Indonesia for Chinese descent.
Cina PKI Kafir Komunis Laknatullah – (Chinese Communists Kafir Cursed by God) Refers to non-Muslim Chinese people who are often called communist supporters of the PRC. This term has been used as a joke since the incident of blasphemy against Islam by the governor of Jakarta, who is of Chinese descent.
Panlok (Panda lokal/local panda) – derogatory term referring to Chinese female or female who look like Chinese, particularly prostitutes.^[355]

In Japanese

Dojin (土人, dojin) – literally "earth people", referring either neutrally to local folk or derogatorily to indigenous peoples and savages, used towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century by Japanese colonists, to imply the backwardsness of Chinese people.^[356]
Tokuajin (特亜人, tokuajin) – literally "particular Asian people", term used for people from East Asian countries that have anti-Japanese sentiments. Taken from Tokutei Asia (特定アジア) which is a term used for countries that are considered anti-Japanese and have political tensions and disputes with Japan, namely North Korea, South Korea, and China.
Shina (支那 or シナ, shina) – Japanese reading of the Chinese character compound "支那" (Zhina in Mandarin Chinese), originally a Chinese transcription of an Indic name for China that entered East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. This toponym quickly became a racial marker with the rise of Japanese imperialism,^[357] and it is still considered derogatory, as is 'shina-jin'.^[358]^[359] The slur is also extended toward left-wing activists by right-wing people.^[360]
Chankoro (チャンコロ or ちゃんころ, chankoro) – derogatory term originating from a corruption of the Taiwanese Hokkien pronunciation of 清國奴 Chheng-kok-lô͘, used to refer to any "Chinaman", with a meaning of "Qing dynasty's slave".

In Korean

Jjangkkae^[ko] (Korean: 짱깨) – the Korean pronunciation of 掌櫃 (zhǎngguì), literally "shopkeeper", originally referring to owners of Chinese restaurants and stores;^[361] derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
Jjangkkolla^[ko] (Korean: 짱꼴라) – this term has originated from Japanese term chankoro (淸國奴, lit. "slave of Qing Manchurian"). Later, it became a derogatory term that indicates people in China.^[362]
Jung-gong (Korean: 중공; Hanja: 中共) – literally "Chinese communist", it is generally used to refer to Chinese communists, since the Korean War (1950–1953).
Orangkae (Korean: 오랑캐) – literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Chinese, Mongolian and Manchus.
Doenom [ko] (Korean: 되놈) – Originally a demeaning word for Jurchen, meaning something similar to 'barbarian'. The Jurchens invaded Joseon in 1636 and caused long-term hatred. A Jurchen group later made the Qing dynasty, causing some Koreans to generalize the word to China as a whole.^[363]
Ttaenom (Korean: 때놈) – literally "dirt bastard", referring to the perceived "dirtiness" of Chinese people, who some believe do not wash themselves. It was originally Dwoenom but changed over time to Ddaenom.

In Mongolian

Hujaa (Mongolian: хужаа) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
Jungaa – a derogatory term for Chinese people referring to the Chinese language.

In Portuguese

Xing líng (星零) - literal translation of the Portuguese expression "zero estrela" ("0 star"), to name a rip-off product, associated with Chinese products.^[364]
Pastel de flango (Chicken pastry) - it is a derogatory term ridiculing Chinese pronunciation of Portuguese language (changing R by L). This derogatory term is sometimes used in Brazil to refer to Chinese people.^[365]

In Russian

Kitayoza (Russian: китаёза kitayóza) (m/f) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
Uzkoglazy (Russian: узкоглазый uzkoglázy) (m) – generic derogatory term referring to Chinese people (lit. "narrow-eyed").

In Spanish

Chino cochino – (coe-chee-noe, N.A. "cochini", SPAN "cochino", literally meaning "pig") is an outdated derogatory term meaning dirty Chinese. Cochina is the feminine form of the word.

In Italian

Muso giallo – "yellow muzzle/yellow face", this term was used in an early 20th century play regarding Italian miners. Although it was not directed toward a Chinese person, but rather from one Italian to another, its existence nevertheless attested to the perceived 'otherness' of Chinese laborers within Italy.^[366] The slur is used as an equivalent of "gook" or "zipperhead" in Italian dubs of English films.^[367]

In Thai

Chek/Jek (Thai: เจ๊ก) – derogatory term referring to Chinese people.

In Vietnamese

Tàu – literally "boat". It is used to refer to Chinese people in general, and can be construed as derogatory but very rarely does. This usage is derived from the fact that many Chinese refugees came to Vietnam in boats during the Qing dynasty.^[368]
Khựa – (meaning dirty) derogatory term for Chinese people and combination of two words above is called Tàu Khựa, which is a common word.^[368]
Tung Của or Trung Của or Trung Cẩu (lit. Dog Chinese) – a word that imitates the pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese Zhōngguó "中国" (China) in a mocking manner, but rarely used.
Trung Cộng or Tàu Cộng (Chinese communists or Communist China) – used, by Vietnamese anti-communists, mostly in exile, as a mockery toward China's political system and its imperialist desires.^[369]^[370]
Chệc – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink^[371]^[372]
Chệch^{[note 3]} – (ethnic slur, derogatory) Chink, seldom used in actual spoken Vietnamese, but occurs in some translations as an equivalent of English Chink.
Ếch Trung Hoa (lit. Frog Chinese) – Derogatory slur from Vietnamese towards Chinese people meaning "frog" due to common sentiments regarding Chinese as ignorant and obnoxious due to Chinese internet censorship.

In the Cantonese topolect

Cheena – derogatory term for China and mainland Chinese people in Hong Kong, originated from the Japanese Shina (支纳).
Wong chung (Chinese: 蝗蟲; Jyutping: wong⁴cung⁴) – literally "locust"; derogatory neologism used to refer to mainland visitors to Hong Kong accused of bad behavior.^[93]
gat zat Chinese: 曱甴; Jyutping: gaat⁶zaat⁶) — literally "cockroach"; derogatory neologism used to refer to Hong Kong protestors accused of bad behavior.

In the Min-nan topolect

Si-a-liok (Written in traditional Chinese: 死阿陸; Taiwanese Romanization: Sí-a-lio̍k or Sí-a-la̍k) – literally "damn mainlander", sometimes uses "四二六" (426, "sì-èr-liù") in Mandarin as word play. See also: 阿陸仔^[zh].

Response

Chinese response

In the aftermath of the United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999, there was a significant surge in Chinese nationalist sentiment, and it was intensified by the growth of patriotic movements in China, which, like patriotic movements in Russia, believe that China is engaged in a clash of civilizations or a "a global struggle between the materialistic, individualistic, consumerist, cosmopolitan, corrupt, and decadent West which is led by the United States and the idealist, collectivist, morally and spiritually superior Asia which is led by China," where the West is viewed as trying to tear China up so it can use its natural resources to satisfy its own interests and needs.^[373]^[374]

A 2020 study among Chinese students who were studying abroad in the United States found that after they faced anti-Chinese racism, their support for the Chinese government increased.^[375] A similar phenomenon was also reported for many Chinese students in the UK.^[376]

Others

In February and March 2024, Malaysian PM Anwar Ibrahim criticised the growing 'China-phobia' sentiment in western nations, insisting that Malaysia can be friends with both China and the West.^[377] China's embassy minister expressed appreciation for Anwar's comments, adding that Malaysia was a friendly neighbour and a priority in China's neighbourhood diplomacy.^[378]

Sinophobia during the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic, in which the virus was first detected in Wuhan, has caused prejudice and racism against people of Chinese ancestry; some people stated that Chinese people deserve to contract it.^[380]^[381] This led to multiple acts of severe violence against people of Chinese ancestry, and those supposed, wrongly, to have been of Chinese ancestry as well.

Several citizens across the globe also demanded a ban on Chinese people from their countries.^[382]^[383] Racist abuse and assaults among Asian groups in the UK and US have also increased.^[384]^[385] Former U.S. President Donald Trump also repeatedly called the coronavirus 'Chinese virus',^[386]^[387] however, he denied the term had a racist connotation.^[388]

Chinese undergraduate and postgraduate students, who have long formed a significant proportion of paying students in the UK and the USA, as well as Chinese researchers, have been made the frequent target of racist attacks, and many universities have felt the need to address the phenomenon.^[389]^[390]^[391]^[392]

Notes

^ In Sinosphere, "anti-Chinese government" (反中[國], lit. "anti-Chinese [state]), "anti-Communist" (反共 / 反中共) or "anti-People's Republic of China" (反中華人民共和國), which means political opposition to the Chinese government or state, is distinct from "anti-Chinese racism" (反華 / 嫌中), which is a racist hatred of the Chinese people.^[13]^[14]
^ Macao was a trading outpost of Portugal since the 1600s in an agreement between China and Portugal, as a non-sovereign holding of the Portuguese empire. The "cession" referred to here is that the sovereignty of Macao was ceded for the first time by China to Portugal after the defeat in the Opium Wars.
^ Alternative form of Chệc.

References

^ "Sinophobia is "Fear of or contempt for China, its people, or its culture" states The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Online Edition. Retrieved July 12, 2012". Archived from the original on June 29, 2015. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
^ Macmillan dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
^ The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
^ Collons Dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
^ hksspr (January 31, 2024). "Chinese-Indonesians Face Long Road to National Integration, Except During Elections". HKS Student Policy Review. Archived from the original on July 11, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
^ "Minority Rights - Chinese in the Philippines". Minority Rights. October 16, 2023. Archived from the original on July 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Harris, Lee (February 9, 2022). "Congress Proposes $500 Million for Negative News Coverage of China". The American Prospect. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
^ London, King's College. "Shaping the policy debate: How the British media presents China". King's College London. Archived from the original on July 11, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
^ "The Asia Portfolio: American Sinophobia". The Edge Malaysia. April 4, 2024. Retrieved August 30, 2024.
^ ^a ^b "Analysis – Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid". Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ ^a ^b Aaron Langmaid. Chinese Aussie rules players suffer abuse, racism Archived April 5, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Herald Sun February 21, 2013
^ ^a ^b Kazin, Michael; Edwards, Rebecca; Rothman, Adam (2010). "Immigration Policy". The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. Princeton University Press. Compared to its European counterparts, Chinese immigration of the late nineteenth century was minuscule (4 percent of all immigration at its zenith), but it inspired one of the most brutal and successful nativist movements in U.S. history. Official and popular racism made Chinese newcomers especially vulnerable; their lack of numbers, political power, or legal protections gave them none of the weapons that enabled Irish Catholics to counterattack nativists.
^ Chih-yu Shih; Prapin Manomaivibool; Reena Marwah (August 13, 2018). China Studies In South And Southeast Asia: Between Pro-china And Objectivism. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 36.
^ 紀紅兵; 內幕出版社 (August 25, 2016). 《十九大不准奪權》: 反貪─清除野心家 (in Chinese). 內幕出版社. ISBN 978-1-68182-072-9. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. ... 第三點,作為獨立學者,與您分享下本人"反中不反華"的觀點。
^ ^a ^b William F. Wu, The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American Fiction, 1850–1940, Archon Press, 1982.
^ "Conference Indorses Chinese Exclusion; Editor Poon Chu Says China Will Demand Entrance Some Day – A Please for the Japanese – Committee on Resolutions Commends Roosevelt's Position as Stated in His Message". The New York Times. December 9, 1905. p. 5. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c Cheah, Charissa S. L.; Ren, Huiguang; Zong, Xiaoli; Wang, Cixin. "COVID-19 Racism and Chinese American Families' Mental Health: A Comparison between 2020 and 2021". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (8). ISSN 1660-4601.
^ Tahmasbi, Fatemeh; Schild, Leonard; Ling, Chen; Blackburn, Jeremy; Stringhini, Gianluca; Zhang, Yang; Zannettou, Savvas (June 3, 2021). ""Go eat a bat, Chang!": On the Emergence of Sinophobic Behavior on Web Communities in the Face of COVID-19". Proceedings of the Web Conference 2021. WWW '21. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1122–1133. doi:10.1145/3442381.3450024. ISBN 978-1-4503-8312-7.
^ ^a ^b Viladrich, Anahí (2021). "Sinophobic Stigma Going Viral: Addressing the Social Impact of COVID-19 in a Globalized World". American Journal of Public Health. 111 (5): 876–880. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2021.306201. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 8034019. PMID 33734846.
^ ^a ^b Gao, Zhipeng (2022). "Sinophobia during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Identity, Belonging, and International Politics". Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science. 56 (2): 472–490. doi:10.1007/s12124-021-09659-z. ISSN 1932-4502. PMC 8487805. PMID 34604946.
^ Sengul, Kurt (May 3, 2024). "The (Re)surgence of Sinophobia in the Australian Far-Right: Online Racism, Social Media, and the Weaponization of COVID-19". Journal of Intercultural Studies. 45 (3): 414–432. doi:10.1080/07256868.2024.2345624. ISSN 0725-6868.
^ Matthew Kendrick (August 4, 2022). "China's Alliance With Russia Weakens Its Position in Eastern Europe". Morning Consult. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 5, 2023.
^ ^a ^b ^c Chapter 3. Attitudes toward China Archived March 13, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Pew Global Attitudes. Posted on July 18, 2013.
^ "Western Balkans Regional Poll (pages 49-53)" (PDF). International Republican Institute, Ipsos. March 6, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 19, 2020.
^ "GLOBSEC Trends 2020" (PDF). Globsec. p. 49. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2021.
^ Michael Robbins (December 15, 2021). "Fragile Popularity: Arab Attitudes Towards China – Arab Barometer". Arab Barometer. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Fewer global citizens believe China will have a positive influence on world affairs in coming decade". Ipsos. November 2020. Archived from the original on October 2, 2021. Retrieved September 21, 2021.
^ "YouGov Cambridge Globalism 2019/20" (PDF). YouGov. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2021.
^ Billé, Franck (October 31, 2014). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824847838 – via www.degruyter.com.
^ Lovell, Julia (November 10, 2015). The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of Modern China. Overlook Press. ISBN 9781468313239.
^ ^a ^b "An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 – American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"". Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, Sacramento, California. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
^ ^a ^b Justina Hwang. Chinese in Peru in the 19th century Archived November 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Modern Latin American, Brown University Library.
^ ^a ^b Unspeakable Affections Archived November 16, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Paris Review. May 5, 2017.
^ Daniel Renshaw, "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38-60. online Archived February 29, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
^ Zisserman-Brodsky, D. (July 3, 2003). Constructing Ethnopolitics in the Soviet Union: Samizdat, Deprivation and the Rise of Ethnic Nationalism. Springer. ISBN 9781403973627. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Schindler, Seth; Alami, Ilias; DiCarlo, Jessica; Jepson, Nicholas; Rolf, Steve; Bayırbağ, Mustafa Kemal; Cyuzuzo, Louis; DeBoom, Meredith; Farahani, Alireza F.; Liu, Imogen T.; McNicol, Hannah; Miao, Julie T.; Nock, Philip; Teri, Gilead; Vila Seoane, Maximiliano Facundo (August 7, 2024). "The Second Cold War: US-China Competition for Centrality in Infrastructure, Digital, Production, and Finance Networks". Geopolitics. 29 (4): 1083–1120. doi:10.1080/14650045.2023.2253432. ISSN 1465-0045.
^ "US Congress HB1157 | 2023-2024 | 118th Congress". LegiScan. Retrieved November 13, 2024.
^ Sang-Hun, Choe (August 20, 2021). "South Koreans Now Dislike China More Than They Dislike Japan". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Yonson Ahn (February 9, 2006). "The Korea-China Textbook War--What's It All About?". History News Network. University of Leipzig. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021.
^ Ines Beneyto Brunet (August 16, 2019). "A Peek into Chinese Views of other Countries". daxueconsulting.com. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Kim, Jun seek to revoke contracts for Chinese ad". The Straits Times, The Korea Herald. June 23, 2014. Archived from the original on February 15, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ McCurry, Justin (December 1, 2020). "'Stealing our culture': South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on January 17, 2021. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ ESTHER CHUNG (February 10, 2022). "Chinese Embassy shoots down claims that hanbok was attempt to steal culture". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on March 15, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
^ Choi Seong Hyeon (February 26, 2021). "A Korean Poet Is the Latest Example of China's 'Cultural Imperialism'". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on May 11, 2022.
^ East Asia Institute Foreign Perception Survey 2005–2009, some in collaboration with BBC World Service Polls 2005–2008 http://www.eai.or.kr
^ "Views of Europe Slide Sharply in Global Poll, While Views of China Improve". GlobeScan. May 10, 2012. Archived from the original on August 3, 2023. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
^ "Beijing's Anti-THAAD Moves Sour China Views in South Korea". Voice of America. March 21, 2017. Archived from the original on May 1, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Lee Jeong-ho (October 3, 2018). "China, not North Korea, is biggest threat to peace, South Koreans say". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2019.
^ Richard Q. Turcsanyi; Esther E. Song (December 24, 2022). "South Koreans Have the World's Most Negative Views of China. Why?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Tai, Crystal (January 5, 2018). "The strange, contradictory privilege of living in South Korea as a Chinese-Canadian woman". Quartz. Archived from the original on January 5, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Anti Chinese-Korean Sentiment on Rise in Wake of Fresh Attack". KoreaBANG. April 25, 2012. Archived from the original on January 31, 2021.
^ ^a ^b "Hate Speech against Immigrants in Korea: A Text Mining Analysis of Comments on News about Foreign Migrant Workers and Korean Chinese Residents* (page 281)" (PDF). Seoul National University. Ritsumeikan University. January 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2020.
^ "Ethnic Korean-Chinese fight 'criminal' stigma in Korea". AsiaOne. October 4, 2017. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "'반중 넘어 혐중'‥ 중국인 혐오, 도 넘은 수준까지?". The Financial News (in Korean). June 13, 2019. Archived from the original on June 14, 2019.
^ "'Taiwanese' identity hits record level". Taipei Times. January 26, 2015. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
^ Anderlini, Jamil (March 30, 2014). "Thousands of Taiwanese rally against closer ties with China". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.
^ Everington, Keoni (October 30, 2023). "76% of Taiwanese consider China 'unfriendly': MAC poll". Taiwan News. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.
^ ^a ^b Baogang He (July 8, 2015). Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-0498-3. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. In the DPP's anti-China and anti-KMT message, the KMT is represented as equivalent to China, while 'democracy' is linked to Taiwanese nationalism. The DPP used the language of colonialism and imperialism to portray China's claims of sovereignty over Taiwan.
^ "Taiwan Elections 2024: Why results of these polls are crucial for global economy". WION. January 13, 2024. Archived from the original on June 1, 2024. Retrieved June 1, 2024. Taiwan elections 2024: The election sees the pro-U.S. and anti-China Democratic Progressive Party candidate Lai Ching-te leading the polls against the Kuomintang candidate Hou Yu-ih, who is seen as more accommodating towards Beijing.
^ Matthew Forney, "Why China Loves to Hate Japan". Time, December 10, 2005. Why China Bashes Japan. Accessed June 1, 2008
^ 24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey(2008) Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine 35p, Pew Research
^ "Joint Civil Society Report on Racial Discrimination in Japan (page 33)" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 14, 2019.
^ "Issues related to the increase in tourists visiting Japan from abroad (sections titled 'How foreign tourists are portrayed' and 'Acts of hate?')". www.japanpolicyforum.jp. November 2017. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Wu, Alice (October 16, 2016). "Vulgar Legco rebels must be suffering from deep self-hatred". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Ng, Joyce (October 25, 2016). "Hong Kong Legco president makes U-turn on oath-taking by localists". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 29, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
^ "Gov't argues in court that Youngspiration duo 'declined' to take their oaths as lawmakers – Hong Kong Free Press HKFP". November 3, 2016. Archived from the original on November 13, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Liu, Ran (April 28, 2018). "The Man Who Burned His Chinese Passport". Forigen Policy. Archived from the original on May 5, 2016.
^ Jörg Friedrichs (2017). "Sino-Muslim Relations: The Han, the Hui, and the Uyghurs (page 35)". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 37. University of Oxford. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Holdstock, Nick (June 13, 2019). China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9.
^ Svanberg, Ingvar; Westerlund, David (1999). Islam Outside the Arab World. Routledge. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-136-11322-2.
^ James Fallows (July 13, 2009). "On Uighurs, Han, and general racial attitudes in China". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 12, 2010.
^ Wang, Emily (November 22, 2018). "China's model village of ethnic unity shows cracks in facade". Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018.
^ 10 killed in ethnic clash in western China Archived April 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on CNN. Posted on February 10, 1997.
^ Branigan, Tania (July 6, 2009). "China locks down western province after ethnic riots kill 140". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Why is there tension between China and the Uighurs? Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on BBC News. Posted on September 26, 2014.
^ China Xinjiang police state: Fear and resentment Archived October 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on BBC News. Posted on February 1, 2018.
^ "China Seizes on a Dark Chapter for Tibet" Archived February 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, by Edward Wong, The New York Times, August 9, 2010 (August 10, 2010, p. A6 of NY ed.). Retrieved August 10, 2010.
^ How the Dalai Lama Works - People Archived July 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on HowStuffWorks
^ Events Leading to the 1959 Tibetan Uprising Archived March 29, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on ThoughtCo. Posted by Kallie Szczepanski on July 16, 2018.
^ Dalai Lama Escapes From Tibet: How and Why It Happened . Posted on Time. Posted on March 17, 2015.
^ Blake Kerr; John Ackerly (January 2, 2018). "HEROD IN TIBET: Massacre of the innocents". Tibetan Review. Delhi, India. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
^ Anna Morcom (June 2018). "The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen (page 129)". Himalaya. 38. Royal Holloway, University of London. Archived from the original on October 2, 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Self-Immolation Protests - Tibetan Resistance". Free Tibet. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024.
^ "HKU POP releases latest survey on Hong Kong people's ethnic identity". Hong Kong University. December 22, 2014. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved January 14, 2015.
^ "Almost nobody in Hong Kong under 30 identifies as "Chinese"". The Economist. August 26, 2019. Archived from the original on November 22, 2019. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ jim.smith (August 27, 2013). "Phone cams and hate speech in Hong Kong". Gates Cambridge. Archived from the original on April 4, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Leung, Wing Yeung Vivian (July 18, 2018). "Discriminatory Media Reports Against Mainland Chinese New Immigrants in Hong Kong". ISA World Congress Of Sociology. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Holdstock, Nick (June 13, 2019). China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9.
^ "Hongkongers still 'negative' about mainland visitors, HKU poll shows". South China Morning Post. December 4, 2013. Archived from the original on May 18, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ Tung, Vincent Wing Sun; King, Brian Edward Melville; Tse, Serene (January 23, 2019). "The Tourist Stereotype Model: Positive and Negative Dimensions". Journal of Travel Research. 59 (1). PolyU School of Hotel and Tourism Management: 37–51. doi:10.1177/0047287518821739. hdl:10397/94502. ISSN 0047-2875. S2CID 150395266. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Xu, Cora Lingling (September 1, 2015). "When the Hong Kong Dream Meets the Anti-Mainlandisation Discourse: Mainland Chinese Students in Hong Kong". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 44 (3). University of Cambridge: 15–47. doi:10.1177/186810261504400302. ISSN 1868-1026.
^ ^a ^b Liu, Juliana (February 8, 2012). "Surge in anti-China sentiment in Hong Kong". BBC. Archived from the original on July 4, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2013.
^ Buddle, Cliff (February 26, 2014). "Anti-mainlander protest a reminder of the limits of free speech". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
^ Jing Wu, Nelson Moura (August 30, 2019). "Corrected: Mainland Chinese uni students in Macau afraid of discrimination in HK". Macau News Agency - DeFicção Multimedia Projects. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "Will violence kill Hong Kong's pro-democracy movement? (at 22:07 minutes)". DW News. November 2019. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.
^ "Chinese students flee HK in fear of attack after death". Bangkok Post. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained – BBC News". BBC News. April 28, 2016. Archived from the original on June 9, 2021. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
^ Catherine Putz (2016). "Land Protests Persist in Kazakhstan". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on May 4, 2016. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
^ Gabriele Battaglia, The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor Between Hope and Fear Archived August 26, 2024, at the Wayback Machine. Asia Times. January 17, 2017.
^ Marlène Laruelle; Dylan Royce (August 2020). "Kennan Cable No. 56: No Great Game: Central Asia's Public Opinions on Russia, China, and the U.S." Wilson Center. Archived from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Tania Branigan (August 2, 2010). "Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuels rise of ultra-nationalism". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved December 17, 2016.
^ Billé (2015). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity.
^ Avery, Martha (2003). The Tea Road: China and Russia Meet Across the Steppe. China Intercontinental Press. p. 91.^{[circular reference]}
^ "Eurasianet | Tajikistan: China's Advance Causing Increasing Unease among Tajiks". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
^ Tajik social-democrats leader: China grabs more Tajik land than agreed Archived July 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted by Ferghana International Agency, on April 16, 2013.
^ "Immigration, Population, and Foreign Workforce in Singapore: An Overview of Trends, Policies, and Issues (page 2)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 16, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
^ "Part 1 of 2: Chinese Xenophobia in Singapore Rises | GRI". Global Risk Insights. July 28, 2013. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
^ Jacobs, Andrew (July 27, 2012). "In Singapore, Vitriol Against Chinese Newcomers". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ Cheung, Helier (May 1, 2014). "'No Indians No PRCs': Singapore's rental discrimination". Archived from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Britons make worst tourists, say Britons (and Spaniards and Germans)". YouGov. August 30, 2019. Archived from the original on December 25, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Gebicki, Michael (September 20, 2019). "Most disliked tourists by country revealed in new research". Stuff. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Loo May Eng (July 2016). "Language Choice of Chinese Migrants in Singapore (page 41)" (PDF). National University of Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 22, 2021 – via CORE.
^ Tran Nhi Bach Van; Duong Thi Hoang Yen; Xiao Juan; Sun Chenhui (2016). "The Integration of International Chinese Students Into Local Singaporean Community (pages 81-83)" (PDF). Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management. 4. James Cook University Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 21, 2021.
^ Horowitz, Donald L. (2003). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. University of California Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0520236424.
^ "Penang's forgotten protest: The 1967 Hartal". Penang Monthly. August 25, 2014. Archived from the original on November 30, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
^ Horowitz, Donald L. (2003). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. University of California Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0520236424.
^ Hwang, p. 72.
^ von Vorys 1975, p. 364.
^ "RACE WAR IN MALAYSIA". TIME. May 18, 2007. Archived from the original on May 18, 2007.
^ von Vorys 1975, p. 368.
^ Slimming 1969, pp. 47–48.
^ "A Revision of Malaysia's Racial Compact". Harvard Political Review. August 18, 2021. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021.
^ Menon, Praveen (March 9, 2018). "Attack on Chinese billionaire exposes growing racial divide in Malaysia". Reuters. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Amy Chew (September 10, 2019). "In Malaysia, fake news of Chinese nationals getting citizenship stokes racial tensions". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ ^a ^b Kok Xinghui (January 29, 2020). "Coronavirus spreads anti-Chinese racism through Asia like a disease". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
^ Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (July 31, 2018). "'No Cambodia left': how Chinese money is changing Sihanoukville". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on July 31, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Tantingco, Robby (March 15, 2010). "Tantingco: What your surname reveals about your past". Sunstar. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ James Francis Warren (2007). The Sulu zone, 1768–1898: the dynamics of external trade, slavery, and ethnicity in the transformation of a Southeast Asian maritime state (2, illustrated ed.). NUS Press. pp. 129, 130, 131. ISBN 978-9971-69-386-2. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Chu, Richard T. (May 1, 2011). "Strong(er) Women and Effete Men: Negotiating Chineseness in Philippine Cinema at a Time of Transnationalism". Positions: Asia Critique. 19 (2). Duke University Press: 365–391. doi:10.1215/10679847-1331760. ISSN 1067-9847. S2CID 146678795. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Tiezzi, Shannon (September 17, 2014). "China Warns Citizens to Stay Away from Philippines". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on June 2, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Alan Robles (February 7, 2020). "Coronavirus concerns fuel anti-Chinese sentiment in the Philippines". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
^ Bing, Chris; Schectman, Joel (June 14, 2024). "Pentagon ran secret anti-vax campaign to undermine China during pandemic". Reuters. Archived from the original on June 14, 2024. Retrieved August 31, 2024. The campaign also reinforced what one former health secretary called a longstanding suspicion of China, most recently because of aggressive behavior by Beijing in disputed areas of the South China Sea. Filipinos were unwilling to trust China's Sinovac, which first became available in the country in March 2021...
^ Cepeda, Mara (September 2, 2024). "Why the loyalty check?: Chinese-Filipinos fear prejudice fuelled by Alice Guo case, South China Sea row". The Straits Times. Retrieved September 23, 2024.
^ History: October 9, 1740: Chinezenmoord, The Batavia Massacre. Posted on History Headline. Posted by Major Dan on October 9, 2016.
^ 海外汉人被屠杀的血泪史大全. woku.com (in Simplified Chinese). ^{[permanent dead link‍]}
^ 十七﹒八世紀海外華人慘案初探 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taoyuan Department of Education. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2018.
^ "ǻܵļɱ". Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ 南洋华人被大规模屠杀不完全记录 (in Chinese (China)). The Third Media. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved July 26, 2009.
^ Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup Archived January 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, smh.com.au
^ Vickers (2005), p. 158
^ "Inside Indonesia – Digest 86 – Towards a mapping of 'at risk' groups in Indonesia". Archived from the original on September 20, 2000. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ "[Indonesia-L] Digest – The May Riot". Archived from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ Beech, Hannah; Suhartono, Muktita; Dean, Adam (March 31, 2020). "China Chases Indonesia's Fishing Fleets, Staking Claim to Sea's Riches". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Fake news charges emotionally driven Jakarta election". Nikkei Asia. February 13, 2017. Archived from the original on June 7, 2018.
^ Amy Chew (July 16, 2020). "Indonesian students continue protests against Chinese workers". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
^ Kevin Ng (April 14, 2022). "Online predators are systemically targeting Chinese-Indonesian women for vile sexual abuse". Coconuts Media. Archived from the original on May 19, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Richard Q. Turcsányi; Kristina Kironská; Alfred Gerstl; Klára Dubravčíková; James Iocovozzi; Peter Gries; Andrew Chubb; Matej Šimalčík (November 2022). Public opinion in the Indo-Pacific: Divided on China, cheering for US & EU (PDF). p. 5. ISBN 978-80-8239-010-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
^ Hutt, David (November 7, 2022). "China more popular among SE Asia publics than elites". Asia Times. Archived from the original on February 27, 2024. Retrieved January 7, 2023.
^ Lintner, Bertil (April 5, 2017). "A Chinese war in Myanmar". Asia Times. Archived from the original on June 21, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.
^ Yhome, K. "The BRI and Myanmar's China debate". Observer Research Foundation. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "Animosity in a Burmese Hub Deepens as Chinese Get Richer". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 28, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
^ Nicholas Farrelly, Stephanie Olinga-Shannon. "Establishing Contemporary Chinese Life in Myanmar (pages 24, 25)" (PDF). ISEAS Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "In Myanmar, Rebels Make Advances, but Peace Remains a Distant Prospect". Stratfor. December 12, 2023. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024. In late November, supporters of the governing junta staged protests in Naypyidaw and Yangon, including outside the Chinese embassy, to protest the perception that China was actively aiding the rebels in their offensive.
^ Lt Gen Prakash Katoch (December 4, 2023). "Myanmar Aflame". Indian Defence Review [fr]. Archived from the original on February 26, 2024. Retrieved January 27, 2024. Yangon recently witnessed anti-China protests (allowed by the government) for supporting armed groups in Myanmar.
^ "Myanmar Regime-Backed Rallies Denounce China, Accusing It of Backing Anti-Junta Alliance". The Irrawaddy. November 20, 2023. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
^ ^a ^b Han, Enze (2024). The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-769659-0.
^ Luang Phibunsongkhram Archived August 12, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted in Encyclopedia Britannica.
^ "Nation-building and the Pursuit of Nationalism under Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram". 2bangkok.com. July 15, 2004. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ Harrison, David; Sharpley, Richard (May 26, 2017). Mass Tourism in a Small World. CABI. ISBN 978-1-78064-854-5.
^ "Chinese, Russian tourists not 'preferred', says Phuket poll". The Phuket News. August 1, 2015. Archived from the original on January 3, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
^ Farrell, James Austin. "Thailand's hostility to Chinese tourists traces all the way back to its history of immigration". Business Insider. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Charuvastra, Teeranai (June 19, 2019). "'Chinese Tourist' Who Took a Dump in Chinatown Not Chinese After All". Khaosod English. Archived from the original on June 19, 2019.
^ Beech, Hannah (February 28, 2020). "He Drove Her to the Hospital. She Gave Him the Coronavirus". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 1, 2023. About 60 percent of his customers, he said, had been Chinese visitors, but they're not coming anymore because of the lockdown in China and Beijing's prohibitions on Chinese group tours exiting the country. "Most of the Chinese I drove were nice," he said. "I miss them."
^ "overseas chinese in vietnam". Archived from the original on April 29, 2015. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ Tretiak, Daniel (1979). "China's Vietnam War and Its Consequences". The China Quarterly. 80 (80). Cambridge University Press: 740–767. doi:10.1017/S0305741000046038. JSTOR 653041. S2CID 154494165. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Wang, Frances Yaping (2024). The Art of State Persuasion: China's Strategic Use of Media in Interstate Disputes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197757512.
^ Griffin, Kevin. Vietnamese Archived February 28, 2003, at the Wayback Machine. Discover Vancouver.
^ Martha Ann Overland (April 16, 2009). "In Vietnam, New Fears of a Chinese 'Invasion'". Time. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ ^a ^b "Vietnamese in second anti-China rally over disputed islands". The Australian. Agence France-Presse. December 16, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ Ask The Vietnamese About War, And They Think China, Not The U.S. Archived September 29, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Posted Michael Sullivan on May 1, 2015.
^ Agence France Presse (April 20, 2009). "Vietnam's China mining plans spark rare criticism". AsianOne News. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ "Vietnam's nationalist bloggers: Getting if off your chest". The Economist. September 10, 2009. Archived from the original on September 13, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ Martha Ann Overland (September 5, 2009). "Vietnam to Its Journalists: Don't Tread on China". Time. Archived from the original on September 8, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ Pham, Nga (August 12, 2009). "China releases Vietnam fishermen". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 20, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.
^ "Tourist Agencies Abandon China". Radio Free Asia. June 3, 2011. Archived from the original on May 17, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
^ "Vietnamese hold anti-Chinese protest". BBC. June 5, 2011. Archived from the original on June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
^ "Vietnam protesters clash with police over new economic zones". BBC News. June 10, 2018. Archived from the original on June 10, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
^ Gross, Daniel. Cheap Trade Archived May 17, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Newsweek.
^ Moufakkir, Omar; Reisinger, Yvette (2013). The Host Gaze in Global Tourism. CABI. ISBN 978-1-78064-021-1. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Chinese brand accused of appropriating Vietnam's 'ao dai' in old fashion collection". Tuoi Tre News. November 23, 2019. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
^ "Chinese newspaper report on Vietnam's ao dai sparks outrage". VietNamNet. November 24, 2019. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2022.
^ Sinophilia and Sinophobia in Afghanistan Archived April 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on The Diplomat. Posted by Tamin Asey on December 10, 2014.
^ "VOICE OF THE PEOPLE Annual Global End of Year Surveys (page 124)" (PDF). Gallup International Association. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ George Metakides (November 23, 2021). Perspectives on Digital Humanism. Springer Nature. p. 221. ISBN 9783030861445. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Netizens in India, Nepal troll Beijing after 'fake' claims on Mt Everest". The Times of India, Asian News International. May 10, 2020. Archived from the original on May 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Francis, Xavier (May 10, 2020). "After Claiming Mount Everest, China Now Says Mount Qomolangma is located on Nepal-China Border". EurAsian Times. Archived from the original on June 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Garver, John W. (July 1, 2011). Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295801209. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
^ Brian Benedictus (August 2, 2014). "Bhutan and the Great Power Tussle". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved February 28, 2018.
^ Srikanth, H.; Majumdar, Munmun (July 5, 2021). Linking India and Eastern Neighbours: Development in the Northeast and Borderlands. SAGE Publishing India. p. 77. ISBN 978-93-91370-77-0. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "India's Real Problem Lies in its Bhutan Policy, Not the Border". The Wire. Archived from the original on February 7, 2023. Retrieved July 12, 2022.
^ "Sri Lanka protest over Chinese investment turns ugly". BBC. January 7, 2017. Archived from the original on November 8, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
^ ^a ^b "Protest over Hambantota port deal turns violent". Al Jazeera. January 7, 2017. Archived from the original on July 20, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mazumdar, Jaideep (November 20, 2010). "The 1962 jailing of Chinese Indians". OPEN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
^ Schiavenza, Matt (August 9, 2013). "India's Forgotten Chinese Internment Camp". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 9, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
^ "Indo Tibetan meet proposes boycott of Chinese goods". The Times of India. September 23, 2013. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
^ "Boycott Chinese products, says prominent cleric in Eid sermon". Zee News. October 6, 2014. Archived from the original on October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
^ "India says China's Galwan Valley claims 'untenable, exaggerated'". aljazeera. Archived from the original on September 10, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Google Removes Viral Indian App That Deleted Chinese Ones: 10 Points". NDTV. June 3, 2020. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020.
^ Young, Jason. "Review of East by South: China in the Australasian Imagination". Victoria University of Wellington. Archived from the original (.doc) on April 14, 2008. Retrieved March 24, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Markey, Raymond (January 1, 1996). "Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850–1901". The Historian. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2006.
^ ^a ^b Griffiths, Phil (July 4, 2002). "Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" (RTF). 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved June 14, 2006.
^ Giese, Diana (1995). Beyond Chinatown (PDF). National Library of Australia. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0642106339. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 29, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "China Outrage Over Sydney Train Assault". Sydney Morning Herald. April 26, 2012. Archived from the original on May 31, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ Lord, Kathy (July 25, 2017). "Offensive flyers targeting Chinese students found at Melbourne universities". ABC News. Archived from the original on August 29, 2017. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
^ Riordan, Primrose (August 2, 2017). "Chinese social media outraged by racist graffiti at Sydney University".
^ Kwai, Isabella; Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong (July 25, 2017). "Anti-Chinese Posters at Melbourne Universities Are Tied to White Supremacists". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved August 24, 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c K. Emma Ng (11 ago. 2015). Old Asian, New Asian Archived May 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The Pantograph Punch.
^ Katherine Dolan (September 16, 2016). New Zealand is no paradise: Rugby, racism and homophobia Archived April 6, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Stuff.
^ ^a ^b "PNG riots hit Chinese businesses". BBC. May 18, 2009. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "Overseas and under siege". The Economist. 2009. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "No More Chinese!" Archived June 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Tongatapu.net
^ ^a ^b "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan" Archived November 4, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, February 7, 2007
^ "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots" Archived May 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, November 17, 2006
^ Kuo, Mercy A. "Israeli Perceptions of China: Implications for the United States". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ Pompilio, Natalie (July 15, 2019). "How Shanghai Saved 20,000 Jews from the Nazis". Thedailybeast.com. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ "China's Kaifeng Jews date back 1,400 years and have an unlikely ambassador – a teenager from Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. March 8, 2020. Archived from the original on November 17, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ Ross, Paul (November 20, 2015). "Mao's Jews". Jewish Journal. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
^ Shnidman, Ronen. "How a Jewish doctor helped form backbone of revolutionary China's medical system". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
^ ^a ^b "Chinese authorities crack down on tiny Jewish community". The Times of Israel. September 25, 2016. Archived from the original on March 23, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ Gilbert, Lela (February 15, 2019). "Tiny Kaifeng Jewish community faces Orwellian future". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on November 22, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
^ "Video: Turkish nationalists protesting China attack Korean tourists in Istanbul". Hurriyet Daily News. Doğan News Agency. July 4, 2015. Archived from the original on August 23, 2015. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
^ "Turks protesting against China attack Koreans 'by mistake'". Malay Mail. Agence France-Presse. July 5, 2014. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
^ "China says tourists attacked in Turkey during anti-China protests". Reuters. July 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 13, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
^ Lefevre, Amy Sawitta; Dikmen, Yesim (July 9, 2015). "Thai PM defends decision to send Uighurs back to China". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 26, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
^ Pinar Tremblay (July 20, 2015). "Attacks on Chinese escalate in Turkey". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021.
^ Giorgio Cafiero; Bertrand Viala (March 15, 2017). "China-Turkey Relations Grow Despite Differences over Uighurs". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on November 25, 2018.
^ "Turks embrace Russia, China, reject U.S. - U.S. State Dept poll". Ahval. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
^ Mackinnon, Colum Lynch, Amy (September 4, 2020). "Document of the Week: Czech Pol to China: Piss Off". Archived from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "'Heavy price': China threatens Czech official over Taiwan visit". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "China influence aggravates Czech Republic's political war". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on June 10, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ponniah, Kevin (October 26, 2016). "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
^ "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC News. October 25, 2016. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
^ Mulholland, Rory (February 22, 2018). "Emmanuel Macron promises to stop foreign investors buying up French farms after China land grab". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
^ ^a ^b "La Chine vue par les Français : menace ou opportunité ?". Institut Montaigne (in French). Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Nik.Fes@tourism-review.com, Nik Fes. "Chinese Tourists – Parisians Not Only Happy about the Tourism Boom | .TR". www.tourism-review.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Survey Finds Americans Are Most Annoying Airline Passengers". TravelPulse. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Stats: Speaking Louder, Slower Picked as Most Ignorant Tourist Habit". Travel Agent Central. September 18, 2018. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Chinese Tourists' Behavior Improving, Study by Chinese Tourism Authority Finds". Jing Daily. February 23, 2017. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Globale Umfrage: Deutsche Touristen im Ausland eher unbeliebt". Die Welt. September 3, 2019. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Seipp, Bettina (June 6, 2014). "Umfrage : Warum Russen die unbeliebtesten Touristen sind". Die Welt. Archived from the original on November 24, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Don't worry: German tourists hate sunbed grabbers too". TheJournal.ie, Agence France Presse. June 6, 2014. Archived from the original on May 10, 2017.
^ How did the Boxer Rebellion unite Imperial Powers and create Chinese Nationalism? Archived March 7, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Daily History.
^ Carbone, Iside (January 12, 2015). China in the Frame: Materialising Ideas of China in Italian Museums. Cambridge Scholars. ISBN 9781443873062.
^ ^a ^b Ancient Italian Town Turns Against Chinese Migrants Archived May 28, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on VOA News. Posted by Henry Ridgwell on October 22, 2010.
^ Ricardo Padron (2014).Sinophobia vs. Sinofilia in the 16th Century Iberian World Archived July 4, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Instituto Cultural do Governo da R.A.E de Macau.
^ Cameron, Nigel (1976). Barbarians and mandarins: thirteen centuries of Western travelers in China. Vol. 681 of A phoenix book (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-226-09229-4. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 18, 2011. envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in Malacca; and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese
^ Duarte Drumond Braga (2017). de portugal a macau: Filosofia E Literatura No Diálogo Das Culturas Archived May 30, 2024, at the Wayback Machine. Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Letras.
^ Peyrouse, Sebastien. "Understanding Sinophobia in Central Asia". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on February 17, 2016. Retrieved May 4, 2020.
^ Santoli, Al (January 29, 2001). "Russian far east residents fear takeover by China; Sino-Russian "strategic cooperation" pact aimed at US". American Foreign Policy Council. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.
^ Baker, Peter (August 2, 2003). "Russians fear Chinese 'takeover' of Far East regions". Dawn. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.
^ Libman, Alexander; Vollan, Björn (2019). "Anti-Western Conspiracy Thinking in China and Russia: Empirical Evidence and its Link to Expectations of Collusion". Homo Oeconomicus. 36 (3–4): 135–163. doi:10.1007/s41412-019-00082-9. S2CID 201356636.
^ Weitz, Richard (2012). "SUPERPOWER SYMBIOSIS: The Russia-China Axis". World Affairs. 175 (4): 71–78. JSTOR 41639036.
^ "Mapping Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Antecedents in Russia (chart)". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Grigoryev, Dmitry; Fiske, Susan T.; Batkhina, Anastasia (July 16, 2019). "Mapping Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Antecedents in Russia: The Stereotype Content Model". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 1643. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01643. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 6646730. PMID 31379677.
^ ^a ^b "Poll: The EU Has Solid Common Ground When It Comes To China". The Diplomat. November 16, 2020. Archived from the original on November 16, 2020.
^ "Russian public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 6 and 8)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 16, 2021.
^ The story of Li-ma-hong and his failed attempt to conquer Manila in 1574 Archived July 23, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Wednesday October 24, 2012.
^ Samuel Hawley. The Spanish Plan to Conquer China Archived July 19, 2019, at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Spanish public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 4 and 9)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies, Elcano Royal Institute. October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 29, 2020.
^ Walsh, Michael (September 18, 2018). "China says Swedish police 'brutally abused' tourists ejected from a hostel". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on April 8, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ Walsh, Michael; Xiao, Bang (September 29, 2018). "'Vicious attack': Comedy skit deepens China and Sweden's diplomatic spat". ABC News. Archived from the original on October 29, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ "Touristes expulsés et blagues racistes : tensions entre la Suede et la Chine". Le Monde (via Youtube). September 26, 2018. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "A Swedish TV Show Said Chinese Tourists Poop In Public And People Are Pissed". BuzzFeed News. September 25, 2018. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ "Aili Tang - Örebro University School of Business". www.oru.se. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ "Sveriges Television sprider rasism om kineser". DN.SE (in Swedish). September 26, 2018. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ Tomas Haupt. "Sweden Avoided by Chinese Tourists". www.tourism-review.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "Scanian of the Year: Jesper Rönndahl gets his portrait at Malmö Airport". www.swedavia.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ Flittner, Sofia (May 11, 2020). "Hostility between China and Sweden at an all-time high". ScandAsia. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ "How Sweden copes with Chinese bullying". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
^ Milne, Richard (February 2020). "Swedish cities cut China links after increase in tension". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.
^ "Sweden shutters all China-sponsored Confucius Institutes". Taiwan News. April 23, 2020. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Russell, Dave (February 10, 2020). "Chinese in Sweden report increased stigmatisation since coronavirus outbreak". Sveriges Radio. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024 – via sverigesradio.se.
^ "YouGov / Eurotrack Survey Results" (PDF). YouGov. May 25, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Yang, William (March 8, 2022). "Ukraine: Sexist comments on Chinese social media trigger backlash". DW News. Archived from the original on January 26, 2023. Retrieved September 19, 2022. Another Chinese student said some Chinese nationals in Ukraine had been confronted by Ukrainian people. The Chinese Embassy in Ukraine, which originally encouraged citizens to display Chinese flags on their cars for protection, quickly urged them not to identify themselves or sport any signs of national identity.
^ "Thousands of Chinese nationals waiting to leave Ukraine - Al Jazeera English" on YouTube
^ Yakimenko, Yuriy (April 5, 2023). "Зовнішня політика України в умовах війни: стан, особливості та пріоритети [Ukrainian foreign policy in wartime: current state, nuances and priorities]". Ukrinform. Archived from the original on June 6, 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2023. Негативне ставлення найчастіше висловлюється до росії – 94%, білорусі – 81%, Ірану – 73,5%, Китаю – 60%, Угорщини – 46,5%.
^ "Attitudes toward China". Pew Research Center. December 5, 2019. Archived from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved April 7, 2023.
^ Doward, Jamie; Hyman, Mika (November 19, 2017). "Chinese report highest levels of racial harassment in UK". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Thomas, Emily (January 6, 2015). "British Chinese people say racism against them is 'ignored'". BBC News. Archived from the original on April 26, 2018. Retrieved May 2, 2018.
^ "Ataque xenófobo a los comercios chinos". eldiaonline (in Spanish). December 13, 2013. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Oliveira, Gustavo de L. T. (2018). "Chinese land grabs in Brazil? Sinophobia and foreign investments in Brazilian soybean agribusiness". Globalizations. 15: 114–133. Bibcode:2018Glob...15..114O. doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.1377374. S2CID 158910046. Archived from the original on October 23, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ Canada (2006). "Address by the Prime Minister on the Chinese Head Tax Redress". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2006.
^ PM apologizes in House of Commons for head tax Archived February 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
^ Anti-Chinese sentiment partly governments' fault: Steves Archived November 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Richmond News. Posted by Graeme Wood on November 23, 2016, at 12:52 PM.
^ An anti-Chinese mob in Mexico Archived May 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. New York Times.
^ Taylor, Lewis. Indigenous Peasant Rebellions in Peru during the 1880s
^ Bonilla, Heraclio. 1978. The National and Colonial Problem in Peru. Past and Present
^ López-Calvo, Ignacio; Chang-Rodríguez, Eugenio (2014). Dragons in the Land of the Condor: Writing Tusán in Peru. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816531110. Retrieved April 22, 2020 – via Google Books.
^ Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved October 2, 2011.
^ See, e.g., "Our Misery and Despair": Kearney Blasts Chinese Immigration Archived July 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on History Matters: The U.S. Survey course on the web. Posted by Dennis Kearney, President, and H.L Knight, Secretary.
^ Ling, Huping (2004). Chinese St. Louis: From Enclave to Cultural Community. Temple University Press. p. 68. The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States.
^ Gompers, Samuel; Gustadt, Herman (1902). Meat vs. Rice: American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism: Which Shall Survive?. American Federation of Labor.
^ Lai, Him Mark; Hsu, Madeline Y. (2010). Chinese American Transnational Politics. University of Illinois Press. pp. 53–54.
^ Chin, Gabriel J. "Harlan, Chinese and Chinese Americans". University of Dayton Law School. Archived from the original on August 11, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Pierson, David (April 20, 2008). "Protesters gather at CNN". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2021.
^ ^a ^b ^c Chris Berdik (April 25, 2008). "Is the World Against China? | BU Today". Boston University. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Chi, Frank (November 8, 2010). "In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2024.
^ ^a ^b Lyden, Jacki (October 27, 2010). "Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia". NPR. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
^ Yang, Jeff (October 27, 2010). "Politicians Play The China Card". Tell Me More. NPR. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
^ "Did protesters overreact to Jimmy Kimmel's jokes about Chinese people?". The Denver Post. November 7, 2013. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "'Kill everyone in China': Outrage over comment during Jimmy Kimmel skit". South China Morning Post. October 23, 2013. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
^ Summers, Ann (July 3, 2016). "all Trump has left is Islamophobia and Sinophobia in the swing-states". Flowers For Socrates. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2018.
^ Anti-China rhetoric in campaign suggests change under a new president Archived November 8, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Washington Post. Posted on September 23, 2015.
^ It isn't only Trump who loves a trade war Archived July 24, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Spiked. Posted on March 6, 2018.
^ Swanson, Ana (July 20, 2019). "A New Red Scare Is Reshaping Washington". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 20, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
^ "Caught in the middle: Chinese-Americans feel heat as tensions flare". South China Morning Post. September 25, 2018. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Huang, Christine; Silver, Laura; Clancy, Laura (April 22, 2022). "China's Partnership With Russia Seen as Serious Problem for the U.S." Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. Retrieved May 9, 2022.
^ "Search Results for chinese | FAIR - Page 2". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Stephen Harner (November 3, 2014). "Dealing with the Scourge of "Schadenfreude" in Foreign Reporting on China". China-US Focus. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Zhou, Min (April 7, 2009). Contemporary Chinese America: Immigration, Ethnicity, and Community Transformation. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-859-3.
^ Snider, Mike. "Steve Bannon learned to harness troll army from 'World of Warcraft'". USA Today. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Why Won't the Chinese Line Up?". HuffPost. May 25, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Black in Beijing: How Transient Black Foreigners Create Community in China (page 106)".
^ Rathi, Akshat (November 11, 2017). "My trip to China shattered my biases about developing nations". Quartz India. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Why Chinese Tourists Absolutely Love This Luxury Outlet 46 Minutes Outside London". Time. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ Kaiman, Jonathan. "At Shanghai Disney, there are fans and then there are superfans". baltimoresun.com. Archived from the original on December 24, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Rain doesn't dampen the mood of opening day at Shanghai Disney". Los Angeles Times. June 16, 2016. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Sichuan's Race Against Time". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Americans Love Canadian Visitors. British Tourists? Not So Much". TravelPulse. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Most Americans Support Tough Stance Toward China on Human Rights, Economic Issues". Pew Research Center. March 4, 2021. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021.
^ "How DeSantis' ban on Chinese homeownership has affected buyers and real estate agents 3 months in". October 18, 2023.
^ Aidoo, Richard (2018). "Go Global, Meet the Locals: Pragmatism, Plunder, and Anti-Chinese Populism in Africa" (PDF). Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Seton Hall University.
^ White, Edward (August 5, 2016). "Analysis: Unpacking Attacks on Chinese Workers in Africa". The News Lens. Archived from the original on August 7, 2016.
^ "Feared rise in anti-Chinese attacks in Africa". AFP News Agency. June 2013. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.
^ "Africans in One of China's Major Cities Say They Are Targets After a Spike in COVID-19". Time. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ Olusegun Adeniyi (April 15, 2020). "China, COVID-19 and African Anger". This Day. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ Rise in anti-Chinese violence in Kenya forces halt of major rail project. Posted on International Business Times. Posted by Elsa Buchanan, on August 19, 2016, 14:32 BST.
^ TSG IntelBrief: Rising Sinophobia in Africa Archived December 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, July 31, 2013
^ Negi, Rohit (January 1, 2008). "Beyond the "Chinese Scramble": The Political Economy of Anti-China Sentiment in Zambia". African Geographical Review. 27 (1): 41–63. Bibcode:2008AfrGR..27...41N. doi:10.1080/19376812.2008.9756209. S2CID 153502797.
^ "Zambia blames opposition for anti-China attacks". Jakarta Post, Agence France Presse. November 9, 2018.
^ Eric Olander, Cobus van Staden (September 2016). "Sinophobia In Zambia Is More Complex Than The International Press Presents". HuffPost.
^ ^a ^b Smith, David (August 12, 2015). "South African teachers oppose plan to offer Mandarin lessons from age nine". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ "Mandarin is putting in extra work to catch up with European languages in South African classrooms". February 6, 2019.
^ Kuo, Lily (April 30, 2017). "Chinese migrants have changed the face of South Africa. Now they're leaving". Quartz Africa. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
^ "Western media should rethink its distorted portrayal of China's rise". South China Morning Post. June 5, 2016. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Negative Portrayal of Chinese in Hollywood Movies Archived May 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. China Daily Blog. Posted on July 11, 2016.
^ Pulver, Andrew (December 7, 2016). "Matt Damon on Great Wall whitewashing: 'I didn't take role from Chinese actor'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Watts, Jonathan (June 14, 2005). "China's secret internet police target critics with web of propaganda". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Campbell, Charlie (October 17, 2017). "Propaganda Reaches Fever Pitch as China's Congress Nears". TIME. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Nyland, Chris; Forbes-Mewett, Helen; Thomson, S. Bruce (2011). "Sinophobia as Corporate Tactic and the Response of Host Communities". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 41 (4): 610–631. doi:10.1080/00472336.2011.610617. S2CID 153335960.
^ "CCTV struggles to silence criticism that it's a propaganda machine". ABC News. November 16, 2014. Retrieved August 29, 2024.
^ Jessica Batke, Oliver Melton, Why Do We Keep Writing About Chinese Politics As if We Know More Than We Do? Posted on ChinaFile, October 16, 2017.
^ Moosavi, Leon (July 3, 2022). "The myth of academic tolerance: the stigmatisation of East Asian students in Western higher education". Asian Ethnicity. 23 (3): 484–503. doi:10.1080/14631369.2021.1882289. ISSN 1463-1369.
^ Amy Chua (January 6, 2004). World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4000-7637-6.
^ Fontes, Lisa Aronson (May 23, 2008). ?. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-710-3.
^ Robert Lee, A (January 28, 2008). ?. Rodopi. ISBN 9789042023512. Retrieved August 23, 2010.
^ 納粹中國 #Chinazi | 楊繼昌. 眾新聞 (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019.
^ VanderKlippe, Nathan (August 29, 2019). "In Hong Kong, protesters employ Nazi imagery as demonstrations erupt again". The Globe and Mail Inc.
^ Wong, Chun Han (September 30, 2019). "Hong Kong Protesters Taunt Beijing in Bid to Spoil Communist China's Birthday". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "Protesters drop Nazi term after Western input - RTHK".
^ "Pinoy or Tsinoy, What is the Problem?". September 13, 2013. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ "Intsik". Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved May 9, 2015.
^ "Pinoy Slang - Tsekwa". Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
^ "Kamus Slang Mobile". kamusslang.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017.
^ Howell, David L. (February 7, 2005). Geographies of Identity in Nineteenth-Century Japan. University of California Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-520-93087-2.
^ LIU, Lydia He (June 30, 2009). The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making. Harvard University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-674-04029-8.
^ Song, Weijie (November 17, 2017). Mapping Modern Beijing: Space, Emotion, Literary Topography. Oxford University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-19-069284-1.
^ Lim, David C. L. (June 30, 2008). Overcoming Passion for Race in Malaysia Cultural Studies. BRILL. p. 32. ISBN 978-90-474-3370-5.
^ "Police officer dispatched from Osaka insults protesters in Okinawa". The Japan Times Online. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 25, 2019.
^ 중국, 질문 좀 할게 (in Korean). 좋은땅. April 22, 2016. p. 114. ISBN 9791159820205. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
^ (in Korean) Jjangkkolla – Naver encyclopedia
^ "떼놈. 때놈. 뙤놈?". December 13, 2014.
^ "Celulares Xing-Ling: o que são e por que não comprá-los". TechTudo (in Brazilian Portuguese). December 13, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2020.
^ "'Pastel de flango'? Racismo anti-amarelos não é mimimi". Capricho (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved July 21, 2021.
^ Randall, Annie J.; Davis, Rosalind Gray (2005). Puccini and The Girl: History and Reception of The Girl of the Golden West. University of Chicago Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-226-70389-3.
^ Giampieri, Patrizia (June 23, 2017). "Racial slurs in Italian film dubbing". Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts. 3 (2): 262–263. doi:10.1075/ttmc.3.2.06gia.
^ ^a ^b Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. Người ta còn dùng các từ như Khựa, Xẩm, Chú Ba… để chỉ người Tàu, cũng với hàm ý miệt thị, coi thường.
^ "Trung Cộng - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org.
^ "Cảnh giác trước lời đe doạ của Trung Cộng". Radio Free Asia.
^ Pham, Ngoc Thuy Vi. "The Educational Development of the Chinese Community in Southern Vietnam" (PDF). National Cheng Kung University. p. 6. Also, according to the "Dictionnaire Annamite–français", "Chec" (Chệc) was the nickname that the Vietnamese people at that time used for Huaqiao. "Chệc" was also how the Annamites called the ethnic Chinese in an unfriendly way. (Chệc: Que les Annamites donnent aux Chinois surnom en mauvaise partie) (J. F. M. Genibrel 1898: 79).
^ Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. "…Còn kêu là Chệc là tại tiếng Triều Châu kêu tâng Chệc nghĩa là chú. Người bên Tàu hay giữ phép, cũng như An-nam ta, thấy người ta tuổi đáng cậu, cô, chú, bác thì kêu tâng là chú là cậu vân vân. Người An-nam ta nghe vậy vịn theo mà kêu các ảnh là Chệc…"
^ Ponniah, Kevin; Marinkovic, Lazara (May 7, 2019). "The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy". BBC News.
^ Zhao, Suisheng (1998). "A State-Led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 31 (3): 287–302. doi:10.1016/S0967-067X(98)00009-9.
^ Fan, Yingjie; Pan, Jennifer; Shao, Zijie; Xu, Yiqing (June 29, 2020). "How Discrimination Increases Chinese Overseas Students' Support for Authoritarian Rule". Stanford University. SSRN 3637710 – via Social Science Research Network. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Parker, Charlie (July 20, 2020). "Campus prejudice 'is driving support for China'". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460.
^ Sky News Australia (March 3, 2024). 'We do not have a problem with China': Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim. Retrieved May 25, 2024 – via YouTube.
^ Bernama (March 8, 2024). "China appreciates PM Anwar's stance on 'China-phobia'". New Straits Times. Retrieved May 25, 2024.
^ O'Hara, Mary Emily. "Mock Subway Posters Urge New Yorkers to Curb Anti-Asian Hate". www.adweek.com. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
^ "'You deserve the coronavirus': Chinese people in UK abused over outbreak". Sky News. February 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
^ Smith, Nicola; Torre, Giovanni (February 1, 2020). "Anti-Chinese racism spikes as virus spreads globally". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. Retrieved July 1, 2020. 'Some Muslims stated that the disease was "divine retribution" for China's oppression of the Uighur minority. The problem lay in confusing the Chinese population with the actions of an authoritarian government which is known for its lack of transparency,' he stated.
^ Solhi, Farah (January 26, 2020). "Some Malaysians calling for ban on Chinese tourists". New Straits Times.
^ Cha, Hyonhee Shin (January 28, 2020). "South Koreans call in petition for Chinese to be barred over virus". Reuters – via www.reuters.com.
^ Tavernise, Sabrina; Oppel, Richard A. Jr. (March 23, 2020). "Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
^ "Hunt for racist coronavirus attackers: Police release CCTV after assault". ITV News. March 4, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
^ Rogers, Katie; Jakes, Lara; Swanson, Ana (March 18, 2020). "Trump Defends Using 'Chinese Virus' Label, Ignoring Growing Criticism". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
^ "Trump: Asian-Americans not responsible for virus, need protection". Reuters. March 24, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
^ "'Not racist at all': Donald Trump defends calling coronavirus the 'Chinese virus'". The Guardian -- YouTube. March 18, 2020. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
^ "Sinophobia (English language version) - Report + Support - University of Surrey". reportandsupport.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved August 30, 2024.
^ "What is Sinophobia? - Report + Support - The University of Edinburgh". reportandsupport.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved August 30, 2024.
^ "SOAS statement on Sinophobia and anti-Asian racism | SOAS". www.soas.ac.uk. March 24, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2024.
^ "The Beaver". March 5, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

External links

Media related to Anti-Chinese sentiment at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of Sinophobia at Wiktionary

[15] In Sinosphere, "anti-Chinese government" (反中[國], lit. "anti-Chinese [state]), "anti-Communist" (反共 / 反中共) or "anti-People's Republic of China" (反中華人民共和國), which means political opposition to the Chinese government or state, is distinct from "anti-Chinese racism" (反華 / 嫌中), which is a racist hatred of the Chinese people.^[13]^[14]

[250] Macao was a trading outpost of Portugal since the 1600s in an agreement between China and Portugal, as a non-sovereign holding of the Portuguese empire. The "cession" referred to here is that the sovereignty of Macao was ceded for the first time by China to Portugal after the defeat in the Opium Wars.

[375] Alternative form of Chệc.

[1] "Sinophobia is "Fear of or contempt for China, its people, or its culture" states The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Online Edition. Retrieved July 12, 2012". Archived from the original on June 29, 2015. Retrieved July 13, 2012.

[2] Macmillan dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.

[3] The Free Dictionary By Farlex. Retrieved July 7, 2022.

[4] Collons Dictionary. Retrieved July 7, 2022.

[5] sspr (January 31, 2024). "Chinese-Indonesians Face Long Road to National Integration, Except During Elections". HKS Student Policy Review. Archived from the original on July 11, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.

[6] "Minority Rights - Chinese in the Philippines". Minority Rights. October 16, 2023. Archived from the original on July 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[7] Harris, Lee (February 9, 2022). "Congress Proposes $500 Million for Negative News Coverage of China". The American Prospect. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.

[8] London, King's College. "Shaping the policy debate: How the British media presents China". King's College London. Archived from the original on July 11, 2024. Retrieved July 11, 2024.

[9] "The Asia Portfolio: American Sinophobia". The Edge Malaysia. April 4, 2024. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

[Analysis-10] "Analysis – Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid". Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[Aaron-Langmaid-11] Aaron Langmaid. Chinese Aussie rules players suffer abuse, racism Archived April 5, 2023, at the Wayback Machine Herald Sun February 21, 2013

[kazin-12] Kazin, Michael; Edwards, Rebecca; Rothman, Adam (2010). "Immigration Policy". The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. Princeton University Press. Compared to its European counterparts, Chinese immigration of the late nineteenth century was minuscule (4 percent of all immigration at its zenith), but it inspired one of the most brutal and successful nativist movements in U.S. history. Official and popular racism made Chinese newcomers especially vulnerable; their lack of numbers, political power, or legal protections gave them none of the weapons that enabled Irish Catholics to counterattack nativists.

[13] Chih-yu Shih; Prapin Manomaivibool; Reena Marwah (August 13, 2018). China Studies In South And Southeast Asia: Between Pro-china And Objectivism. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 36.

[14] 紀紅兵; 內幕出版社 (August 25, 2016). 《十九大不准奪權》: 反貪─清除野心家 (in Chinese). 內幕出版社. ISBN 978-1-68182-072-9. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. ... 第三點,作為獨立學者,與您分享下本人"反中不反華"的觀點。

[wu-16] William F. Wu, The Yellow Peril: Chinese Americans in American Fiction, 1850–1940, Archon Press, 1982.

[17] "Conference Indorses Chinese Exclusion; Editor Poon Chu Says China Will Demand Entrance Some Day – A Please for the Japanese – Committee on Resolutions Commends Roosevelt's Position as Stated in His Message". The New York Times. December 9, 1905. p. 5. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved February 21, 2010.

[:2-18] Cheah, Charissa S. L.; Ren, Huiguang; Zong, Xiaoli; Wang, Cixin. "COVID-19 Racism and Chinese American Families' Mental Health: A Comparison between 2020 and 2021". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (8). ISSN 1660-4601.

[19] Tahmasbi, Fatemeh; Schild, Leonard; Ling, Chen; Blackburn, Jeremy; Stringhini, Gianluca; Zhang, Yang; Zannettou, Savvas (June 3, 2021). ""Go eat a bat, Chang!": On the Emergence of Sinophobic Behavior on Web Communities in the Face of COVID-19". Proceedings of the Web Conference 2021. WWW '21. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1122–1133. doi:10.1145/3442381.3450024. ISBN 978-1-4503-8312-7.

[:0-20] Viladrich, Anahí (2021). "Sinophobic Stigma Going Viral: Addressing the Social Impact of COVID-19 in a Globalized World". American Journal of Public Health. 111 (5): 876–880. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2021.306201. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 8034019. PMID 33734846.

[:1-21] Gao, Zhipeng (2022). "Sinophobia during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Identity, Belonging, and International Politics". Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science. 56 (2): 472–490. doi:10.1007/s12124-021-09659-z. ISSN 1932-4502. PMC 8487805. PMID 34604946.

[:3-22] Sengul, Kurt (May 3, 2024). "The (Re)surgence of Sinophobia in the Australian Far-Right: Online Racism, Social Media, and the Weaponization of COVID-19". Journal of Intercultural Studies. 45 (3): 414–432. doi:10.1080/07256868.2024.2345624. ISSN 0725-6868.

[23] Matthew Kendrick (August 4, 2022). "China's Alliance With Russia Weakens Its Position in Eastern Europe". Morning Consult. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved February 5, 2023.

[Chapter-3-24] Chapter 3. Attitudes toward China Archived March 13, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Pew Global Attitudes. Posted on July 18, 2013.

[25] "Western Balkans Regional Poll (pages 49-53)" (PDF). International Republican Institute, Ipsos. March 6, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 19, 2020.

[26] "GLOBSEC Trends 2020" (PDF). Globsec. p. 49. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2021.

[27] Michael Robbins (December 15, 2021). "Fragile Popularity: Arab Attitudes Towards China – Arab Barometer". Arab Barometer. Archived from the original on November 11, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[28] "Fewer global citizens believe China will have a positive influence on world affairs in coming decade". Ipsos. November 2020. Archived from the original on October 2, 2021. Retrieved September 21, 2021.

[29] "YouGov Cambridge Globalism 2019/20" (PDF). YouGov. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2021.

[30] Billé, Franck (October 31, 2014). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824847838 – via www.degruyter.com.

[Lovell_Julia-31] Lovell, Julia (November 10, 2015). The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of Modern China. Overlook Press. ISBN 9781468313239.

[yeefow-32] "An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 – American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"". Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, Sacramento, California. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved March 24, 2008.

[Crean-33] Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.

[Justina-Hwang-34] Justina Hwang. Chinese in Peru in the 19th century Archived November 11, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Modern Latin American, Brown University Library.

[Unspeakable-Affections-Archived-November-16-35] Unspeakable Affections Archived November 16, 2019, at the Wayback Machine - Paris Review. May 5, 2017.

[36] Daniel Renshaw, "Prejudice and paranoia: a comparative study of antisemitism and Sinophobia in turn-of-the-century Britain." Patterns of Prejudice 50.1 (2016): 38-60. online Archived February 29, 2024, at the Wayback Machine

[37] Zisserman-Brodsky, D. (July 3, 2003). Constructing Ethnopolitics in the Soviet Union: Samizdat, Deprivation and the Rise of Ethnic Nationalism. Springer. ISBN 9781403973627. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[38] Schindler, Seth; Alami, Ilias; DiCarlo, Jessica; Jepson, Nicholas; Rolf, Steve; Bayırbağ, Mustafa Kemal; Cyuzuzo, Louis; DeBoom, Meredith; Farahani, Alireza F.; Liu, Imogen T.; McNicol, Hannah; Miao, Julie T.; Nock, Philip; Teri, Gilead; Vila Seoane, Maximiliano Facundo (August 7, 2024). "The Second Cold War: US-China Competition for Centrality in Infrastructure, Digital, Production, and Finance Networks". Geopolitics. 29 (4): 1083–1120. doi:10.1080/14650045.2023.2253432. ISSN 1465-0045.

[39] "US Congress HB1157 | 2023-2024 | 118th Congress". LegiScan. Retrieved November 13, 2024.

[40] Sang-Hun, Choe (August 20, 2021). "South Koreans Now Dislike China More Than They Dislike Japan". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[41] Yonson Ahn (February 9, 2006). "The Korea-China Textbook War--What's It All About?". History News Network. University of Leipzig. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021.

[42] Ines Beneyto Brunet (August 16, 2019). "A Peek into Chinese Views of other Countries". daxueconsulting.com. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[43] "Kim, Jun seek to revoke contracts for Chinese ad". The Straits Times, The Korea Herald. June 23, 2014. Archived from the original on February 15, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[44] McCurry, Justin (December 1, 2020). "'Stealing our culture': South Koreans upset after China claims kimchi as its own". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on January 17, 2021. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[45] ESTHER CHUNG (February 10, 2022). "Chinese Embassy shoots down claims that hanbok was attempt to steal culture". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on March 15, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2022.

[46] Choi Seong Hyeon (February 26, 2021). "A Korean Poet Is the Latest Example of China's 'Cultural Imperialism'". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on May 11, 2022.

[47] East Asia Institute Foreign Perception Survey 2005–2009, some in collaboration with BBC World Service Polls 2005–2008 http://www.eai.or.kr

[48] "Views of Europe Slide Sharply in Global Poll, While Views of China Improve". GlobeScan. May 10, 2012. Archived from the original on August 3, 2023. Retrieved January 7, 2023.

[49] "Beijing's Anti-THAAD Moves Sour China Views in South Korea". Voice of America. March 21, 2017. Archived from the original on May 1, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[50] Lee Jeong-ho (October 3, 2018). "China, not North Korea, is biggest threat to peace, South Koreans say". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved July 14, 2019.

[51] Richard Q. Turcsanyi; Esther E. Song (December 24, 2022). "South Koreans Have the World's Most Negative Views of China. Why?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[52] Tai, Crystal (January 5, 2018). "The strange, contradictory privilege of living in South Korea as a Chinese-Canadian woman". Quartz. Archived from the original on January 5, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[53] "Anti Chinese-Korean Sentiment on Rise in Wake of Fresh Attack". KoreaBANG. April 25, 2012. Archived from the original on January 31, 2021.

[Seoul-National-University-2018-54] "Hate Speech against Immigrants in Korea: A Text Mining Analysis of Comments on News about Foreign Migrant Workers and Korean Chinese Residents* (page 281)" (PDF). Seoul National University. Ritsumeikan University. January 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 5, 2020.

[55] "Ethnic Korean-Chinese fight 'criminal' stigma in Korea". AsiaOne. October 4, 2017. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[56] "'반중 넘어 혐중'‥ 중국인 혐오, 도 넘은 수준까지?". The Financial News (in Korean). June 13, 2019. Archived from the original on June 14, 2019.

[57] "'Taiwanese' identity hits record level". Taipei Times. January 26, 2015. Retrieved January 27, 2024.

[58] Anderlini, Jamil (March 30, 2014). "Thousands of Taiwanese rally against closer ties with China". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.

[59] Everington, Keoni (October 30, 2023). "76% of Taiwanese consider China 'unfriendly': MAC poll". Taiwan News. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved October 30, 2023.

[Baogang_He-60] Baogang He (July 8, 2015). Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-0498-3. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. In the DPP's anti-China and anti-KMT message, the KMT is represented as equivalent to China, while 'democracy' is linked to Taiwanese nationalism. The DPP used the language of colonialism and imperialism to portray China's claims of sovereignty over Taiwan.

[61] "Taiwan Elections 2024: Why results of these polls are crucial for global economy". WION. January 13, 2024. Archived from the original on June 1, 2024. Retrieved June 1, 2024. Taiwan elections 2024: The election sees the pro-U.S. and anti-China Democratic Progressive Party candidate Lai Ching-te leading the polls against the Kuomintang candidate Hou Yu-ih, who is seen as more accommodating towards Beijing.

[62] Matthew Forney, "Why China Loves to Hate Japan". Time, December 10, 2005. Why China Bashes Japan. Accessed June 1, 2008

[63] 24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey(2008) Archived July 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine 35p, Pew Research

[64] "Joint Civil Society Report on Racial Discrimination in Japan (page 33)" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 14, 2019.

[65] "Issues related to the increase in tourists visiting Japan from abroad (sections titled 'How foreign tourists are portrayed' and 'Acts of hate?')". www.japanpolicyforum.jp. November 2017. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[66] Wu, Alice (October 16, 2016). "Vulgar Legco rebels must be suffering from deep self-hatred". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[67] Ng, Joyce (October 25, 2016). "Hong Kong Legco president makes U-turn on oath-taking by localists". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 29, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2017.

[68] "Gov't argues in court that Youngspiration duo 'declined' to take their oaths as lawmakers – Hong Kong Free Press HKFP". November 3, 2016. Archived from the original on November 13, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[69] Liu, Ran (April 28, 2018). "The Man Who Burned His Chinese Passport". Forigen Policy. Archived from the original on May 5, 2016.

[70] Jörg Friedrichs (2017). "Sino-Muslim Relations: The Han, the Hui, and the Uyghurs (page 35)". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 37. University of Oxford. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[71] Holdstock, Nick (June 13, 2019). China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9.

[72] Svanberg, Ingvar; Westerlund, David (1999). Islam Outside the Arab World. Routledge. p. 204. ISBN 978-1-136-11322-2.

[73] James Fallows (July 13, 2009). "On Uighurs, Han, and general racial attitudes in China". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 12, 2010.

[74] Wang, Emily (November 22, 2018). "China's model village of ethnic unity shows cracks in facade". Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018.

[75] 10 killed in ethnic clash in western China Archived April 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on CNN. Posted on February 10, 1997.

[76] Branigan, Tania (July 6, 2009). "China locks down western province after ethnic riots kill 140". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[77] Why is there tension between China and the Uighurs? Archived November 14, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on BBC News. Posted on September 26, 2014.

[78] China Xinjiang police state: Fear and resentment Archived October 10, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on BBC News. Posted on February 1, 2018.

[79] "China Seizes on a Dark Chapter for Tibet" Archived February 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, by Edward Wong, The New York Times, August 9, 2010 (August 10, 2010, p. A6 of NY ed.). Retrieved August 10, 2010.

[80] How the Dalai Lama Works - People Archived July 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on HowStuffWorks

[81] Events Leading to the 1959 Tibetan Uprising Archived March 29, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on ThoughtCo. Posted by Kallie Szczepanski on July 16, 2018.

[82] Dalai Lama Escapes From Tibet: How and Why It Happened . Posted on Time. Posted on March 17, 2015.

[83] Blake Kerr; John Ackerly (January 2, 2018). "HEROD IN TIBET: Massacre of the innocents". Tibetan Review. Delhi, India. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024.

[84] Anna Morcom (June 2018). "The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen (page 129)". Himalaya. 38. Royal Holloway, University of London. Archived from the original on October 2, 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[85] "Self-Immolation Protests - Tibetan Resistance". Free Tibet. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024.

[86] "HKU POP releases latest survey on Hong Kong people's ethnic identity". Hong Kong University. December 22, 2014. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved January 14, 2015.

[87] "Almost nobody in Hong Kong under 30 identifies as "Chinese"". The Economist. August 26, 2019. Archived from the original on November 22, 2019. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[88] .smith (August 27, 2013). "Phone cams and hate speech in Hong Kong". Gates Cambridge. Archived from the original on April 4, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[89] Leung, Wing Yeung Vivian (July 18, 2018). "Discriminatory Media Reports Against Mainland Chinese New Immigrants in Hong Kong". ISA World Congress Of Sociology. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[90] Holdstock, Nick (June 13, 2019). China's Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-78831-982-9.

[91] "Hongkongers still 'negative' about mainland visitors, HKU poll shows". South China Morning Post. December 4, 2013. Archived from the original on May 18, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[92] Tung, Vincent Wing Sun; King, Brian Edward Melville; Tse, Serene (January 23, 2019). "The Tourist Stereotype Model: Positive and Negative Dimensions". Journal of Travel Research. 59 (1). PolyU School of Hotel and Tourism Management: 37–51. doi:10.1177/0047287518821739. hdl:10397/94502. ISSN 0047-2875. S2CID 150395266. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[93] Xu, Cora Lingling (September 1, 2015). "When the Hong Kong Dream Meets the Anti-Mainlandisation Discourse: Mainland Chinese Students in Hong Kong". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 44 (3). University of Cambridge: 15–47. doi:10.1177/186810261504400302. ISSN 1868-1026.

[Juliana_Liu-94] Liu, Juliana (February 8, 2012). "Surge in anti-China sentiment in Hong Kong". BBC. Archived from the original on July 4, 2013. Retrieved October 4, 2013.

[95] Buddle, Cliff (February 26, 2014). "Anti-mainlander protest a reminder of the limits of free speech". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on March 2, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2014.

[96] Jing Wu, Nelson Moura (August 30, 2019). "Corrected: Mainland Chinese uni students in Macau afraid of discrimination in HK". Macau News Agency - DeFicção Multimedia Projects. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[97] "Will violence kill Hong Kong's pro-democracy movement? (at 22:07 minutes)". DW News. November 2019. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.

[98] "Chinese students flee HK in fear of attack after death". Bangkok Post. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[99] "Kazakhstan's land reform protests explained – BBC News". BBC News. April 28, 2016. Archived from the original on June 9, 2021. Retrieved February 28, 2018.

[100] Catherine Putz (2016). "Land Protests Persist in Kazakhstan". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on May 4, 2016. Retrieved February 28, 2018.

[101] Gabriele Battaglia, The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor Between Hope and Fear Archived August 26, 2024, at the Wayback Machine. Asia Times. January 17, 2017.

[102] Marlène Laruelle; Dylan Royce (August 2020). "Kennan Cable No. 56: No Great Game: Central Asia's Public Opinions on Russia, China, and the U.S." Wilson Center. Archived from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[Tania-Branigan-2010-103] Tania Branigan (August 2, 2010). "Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuels rise of ultra-nationalism". The Guardian. Archived from the original on September 15, 2013. Retrieved December 17, 2016.

[104] Billé (2015). Sinophobia: Anxiety, Violence, and the Making of Mongolian Identity.

[105] Avery, Martha (2003). The Tea Road: China and Russia Meet Across the Steppe. China Intercontinental Press. p. 91.^{[circular reference]}

[106] "Eurasianet | Tajikistan: China's Advance Causing Increasing Unease among Tajiks". Eurasianet. Archived from the original on July 26, 2018. Retrieved July 25, 2018.

[107] Tajik social-democrats leader: China grabs more Tajik land than agreed Archived July 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted by Ferghana International Agency, on April 16, 2013.

[108] "Immigration, Population, and Foreign Workforce in Singapore: An Overview of Trends, Policies, and Issues (page 2)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 16, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2020.

[109] "Part 1 of 2: Chinese Xenophobia in Singapore Rises | GRI". Global Risk Insights. July 28, 2013. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2020.

[110] Jacobs, Andrew (July 27, 2012). "In Singapore, Vitriol Against Chinese Newcomers". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[111] Cheung, Helier (May 1, 2014). "'No Indians No PRCs': Singapore's rental discrimination". Archived from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[112] "Britons make worst tourists, say Britons (and Spaniards and Germans)". YouGov. August 30, 2019. Archived from the original on December 25, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[113] Gebicki, Michael (September 20, 2019). "Most disliked tourists by country revealed in new research". Stuff. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[114] Loo May Eng (July 2016). "Language Choice of Chinese Migrants in Singapore (page 41)" (PDF). National University of Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 22, 2021 – via CORE.

[115] Tran Nhi Bach Van; Duong Thi Hoang Yen; Xiao Juan; Sun Chenhui (2016). "The Integration of International Chinese Students Into Local Singaporean Community (pages 81-83)" (PDF). Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management. 4. James Cook University Singapore. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 21, 2021.

[116] Horowitz, Donald L. (2003). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. University of California Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0520236424.

[117] "Penang's forgotten protest: The 1967 Hartal". Penang Monthly. August 25, 2014. Archived from the original on November 30, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2016.

[118] Horowitz, Donald L. (2003). The Deadly Ethnic Riot. University of California Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0520236424.

[hwang_72-119] Hwang, p. 72.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Vorys1975[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCKN9BgAAQBAJpgPA364_364]-120] von Vorys 1975, p. 364.

[121] "RACE WAR IN MALAYSIA". TIME. May 18, 2007. Archived from the original on May 18, 2007.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Vorys1975[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidCKN9BgAAQBAJpgPA368_368]-122] von Vorys 1975, p. 368.

[FOOTNOTESlimming196947–48-123] Slimming 1969, pp. 47–48.

[124] "A Revision of Malaysia's Racial Compact". Harvard Political Review. August 18, 2021. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021.

[125] Menon, Praveen (March 9, 2018). "Attack on Chinese billionaire exposes growing racial divide in Malaysia". Reuters. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[126] Amy Chew (September 10, 2019). "In Malaysia, fake news of Chinese nationals getting citizenship stokes racial tensions". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[Kok-Xinghui-2020-127] Kok Xinghui (January 29, 2020). "Coronavirus spreads anti-Chinese racism through Asia like a disease". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2020.

[128] Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (July 31, 2018). "'No Cambodia left': how Chinese money is changing Sihanoukville". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on July 31, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[129] Tantingco, Robby (March 15, 2010). "Tantingco: What your surname reveals about your past". Sunstar. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[130] James Francis Warren (2007). The Sulu zone, 1768–1898: the dynamics of external trade, slavery, and ethnicity in the transformation of a Southeast Asian maritime state (2, illustrated ed.). NUS Press. pp. 129, 130, 131. ISBN 978-9971-69-386-2. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[Chu_365–391-131] Chu, Richard T. (May 1, 2011). "Strong(er) Women and Effete Men: Negotiating Chineseness in Philippine Cinema at a Time of Transnationalism". Positions: Asia Critique. 19 (2). Duke University Press: 365–391. doi:10.1215/10679847-1331760. ISSN 1067-9847. S2CID 146678795. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[132] Tiezzi, Shannon (September 17, 2014). "China Warns Citizens to Stay Away from Philippines". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on June 2, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[133] Alan Robles (February 7, 2020). "Coronavirus concerns fuel anti-Chinese sentiment in the Philippines". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.

[134] Bing, Chris; Schectman, Joel (June 14, 2024). "Pentagon ran secret anti-vax campaign to undermine China during pandemic". Reuters. Archived from the original on June 14, 2024. Retrieved August 31, 2024. The campaign also reinforced what one former health secretary called a longstanding suspicion of China, most recently because of aggressive behavior by Beijing in disputed areas of the South China Sea. Filipinos were unwilling to trust China's Sinovac, which first became available in the country in March 2021...

[135] Cepeda, Mara (September 2, 2024). "Why the loyalty check?: Chinese-Filipinos fear prejudice fuelled by Alice Guo case, South China Sea row". The Straits Times. Retrieved September 23, 2024.

[136] History: October 9, 1740: Chinezenmoord, The Batavia Massacre. Posted on History Headline. Posted by Major Dan on October 9, 2016.

[137] 海外汉人被屠杀的血泪史大全. woku.com (in Simplified Chinese). ^{[permanent dead link‍]}

[138] 十七﹒八世紀海外華人慘案初探 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taoyuan Department of Education. Archived from the original on January 2, 2017. Retrieved March 17, 2018.

[139] "ǻܵļɱ". Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[140] 南洋华人被大规模屠杀不完全记录 (in Chinese (China)). The Third Media. Archived from the original on July 7, 2011. Retrieved July 26, 2009.

[141] Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup Archived January 10, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, smh.com.au

[142] Vickers (2005), p. 158

[143] "Inside Indonesia – Digest 86 – Towards a mapping of 'at risk' groups in Indonesia". Archived from the original on September 20, 2000. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[144] "[Indonesia-L] Digest – The May Riot". Archived from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[145] Beech, Hannah; Suhartono, Muktita; Dean, Adam (March 31, 2020). "China Chases Indonesia's Fishing Fleets, Staking Claim to Sea's Riches". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[146] "Fake news charges emotionally driven Jakarta election". Nikkei Asia. February 13, 2017. Archived from the original on June 7, 2018.

[147] Amy Chew (July 16, 2020). "Indonesian students continue protests against Chinese workers". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved September 4, 2020.

[148] Kevin Ng (April 14, 2022). "Online predators are systemically targeting Chinese-Indonesian women for vile sexual abuse". Coconuts Media. Archived from the original on May 19, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[149] Richard Q. Turcsányi; Kristina Kironská; Alfred Gerstl; Klára Dubravčíková; James Iocovozzi; Peter Gries; Andrew Chubb; Matej Šimalčík (November 2022). Public opinion in the Indo-Pacific: Divided on China, cheering for US & EU (PDF). p. 5. ISBN 978-80-8239-010-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)

[150] Hutt, David (November 7, 2022). "China more popular among SE Asia publics than elites". Asia Times. Archived from the original on February 27, 2024. Retrieved January 7, 2023.

[151] Lintner, Bertil (April 5, 2017). "A Chinese war in Myanmar". Asia Times. Archived from the original on June 21, 2022. Retrieved July 5, 2022.

[152] Yhome, K. "The BRI and Myanmar's China debate". Observer Research Foundation. Archived from the original on May 13, 2020. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[153] "Animosity in a Burmese Hub Deepens as Chinese Get Richer". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 28, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2016.

[154] Nicholas Farrelly, Stephanie Olinga-Shannon. "Establishing Contemporary Chinese Life in Myanmar (pages 24, 25)" (PDF). ISEAS Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[155] "In Myanmar, Rebels Make Advances, but Peace Remains a Distant Prospect". Stratfor. December 12, 2023. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2024. In late November, supporters of the governing junta staged protests in Naypyidaw and Yangon, including outside the Chinese embassy, to protest the perception that China was actively aiding the rebels in their offensive.

[156] Lt Gen Prakash Katoch (December 4, 2023). "Myanmar Aflame". Indian Defence Review [fr]. Archived from the original on February 26, 2024. Retrieved January 27, 2024. Yangon recently witnessed anti-China protests (allowed by the government) for supporting armed groups in Myanmar.

[157] "Myanmar Regime-Backed Rallies Denounce China, Accusing It of Backing Anti-Junta Alliance". The Irrawaddy. November 20, 2023. Archived from the original on November 21, 2023. Retrieved November 23, 2023.

[:Han-158] Han, Enze (2024). The Ripple Effect: China's Complex Presence in Southeast Asia. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-769659-0.

[159] Luang Phibunsongkhram Archived August 12, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted in Encyclopedia Britannica.

[160] "Nation-building and the Pursuit of Nationalism under Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram". 2bangkok.com. July 15, 2004. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[161] Harrison, David; Sharpley, Richard (May 26, 2017). Mass Tourism in a Small World. CABI. ISBN 978-1-78064-854-5.

[162] "Chinese, Russian tourists not 'preferred', says Phuket poll". The Phuket News. August 1, 2015. Archived from the original on January 3, 2020. Retrieved January 2, 2020.

[163] Farrell, James Austin. "Thailand's hostility to Chinese tourists traces all the way back to its history of immigration". Business Insider. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[164] Charuvastra, Teeranai (June 19, 2019). "'Chinese Tourist' Who Took a Dump in Chinatown Not Chinese After All". Khaosod English. Archived from the original on June 19, 2019.

[165] Beech, Hannah (February 28, 2020). "He Drove Her to the Hospital. She Gave Him the Coronavirus". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 1, 2023. About 60 percent of his customers, he said, had been Chinese visitors, but they're not coming anymore because of the lockdown in China and Beijing's prohibitions on Chinese group tours exiting the country. "Most of the Chinese I drove were nice," he said. "I miss them."

[166] "overseas chinese in vietnam". Archived from the original on April 29, 2015. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[167] Tretiak, Daniel (1979). "China's Vietnam War and Its Consequences". The China Quarterly. 80 (80). Cambridge University Press: 740–767. doi:10.1017/S0305741000046038. JSTOR 653041. S2CID 154494165. Archived from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[:Wang-168] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Wang, Frances Yaping (2024). The Art of State Persuasion: China's Strategic Use of Media in Interstate Disputes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197757512.

[169] Griffin, Kevin. Vietnamese Archived February 28, 2003, at the Wayback Machine. Discover Vancouver.

[170] Martha Ann Overland (April 16, 2009). "In Vietnam, New Fears of a Chinese 'Invasion'". Time. Archived from the original on April 18, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[The-Australian-2007-171] "Vietnamese in second anti-China rally over disputed islands". The Australian. Agence France-Presse. December 16, 2007. Archived from the original on December 18, 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[172] Ask The Vietnamese About War, And They Think China, Not The U.S. Archived September 29, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Posted Michael Sullivan on May 1, 2015.

[173] Agence France Presse (April 20, 2009). "Vietnam's China mining plans spark rare criticism". AsianOne News. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[174] "Vietnam's nationalist bloggers: Getting if off your chest". The Economist. September 10, 2009. Archived from the original on September 13, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[175] Martha Ann Overland (September 5, 2009). "Vietnam to Its Journalists: Don't Tread on China". Time. Archived from the original on September 8, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[176] Pham, Nga (August 12, 2009). "China releases Vietnam fishermen". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 20, 2009. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

[177] "Tourist Agencies Abandon China". Radio Free Asia. June 3, 2011. Archived from the original on May 17, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2011.

[178] "Vietnamese hold anti-Chinese protest". BBC. June 5, 2011. Archived from the original on June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 5, 2011.

[179] "Vietnam protesters clash with police over new economic zones". BBC News. June 10, 2018. Archived from the original on June 10, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018.

[180] Gross, Daniel. Cheap Trade Archived May 17, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Newsweek.

[181] Moufakkir, Omar; Reisinger, Yvette (2013). The Host Gaze in Global Tourism. CABI. ISBN 978-1-78064-021-1. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[182] "Chinese brand accused of appropriating Vietnam's 'ao dai' in old fashion collection". Tuoi Tre News. November 23, 2019. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 24, 2022.

[183] "Chinese newspaper report on Vietnam's ao dai sparks outrage". VietNamNet. November 24, 2019. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2022.

[184] Sinophilia and Sinophobia in Afghanistan Archived April 7, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on The Diplomat. Posted by Tamin Asey on December 10, 2014.

[185] "VOICE OF THE PEOPLE Annual Global End of Year Surveys (page 124)" (PDF). Gallup International Association. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[186] George Metakides (November 23, 2021). Perspectives on Digital Humanism. Springer Nature. p. 221. ISBN 9783030861445. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[187] "Netizens in India, Nepal troll Beijing after 'fake' claims on Mt Everest". The Times of India, Asian News International. May 10, 2020. Archived from the original on May 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[188] Francis, Xavier (May 10, 2020). "After Claiming Mount Everest, China Now Says Mount Qomolangma is located on Nepal-China Border". EurAsian Times. Archived from the original on June 6, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[189] Garver, John W. (July 1, 2011). Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295801209. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved February 28, 2018.

[190] Brian Benedictus (August 2, 2014). "Bhutan and the Great Power Tussle". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on December 22, 2015. Retrieved February 28, 2018.

[191] Srikanth, H.; Majumdar, Munmun (July 5, 2021). Linking India and Eastern Neighbours: Development in the Northeast and Borderlands. SAGE Publishing India. p. 77. ISBN 978-93-91370-77-0. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[192] "India's Real Problem Lies in its Bhutan Policy, Not the Border". The Wire. Archived from the original on February 7, 2023. Retrieved July 12, 2022.

[193] "Sri Lanka protest over Chinese investment turns ugly". BBC. January 7, 2017. Archived from the original on November 8, 2023. Retrieved June 20, 2018.

[Al_Jazeera-Hambantota-194] "Protest over Hambantota port deal turns violent". Al Jazeera. January 7, 2017. Archived from the original on July 20, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[Mazumdar-2010-195] Mazumdar, Jaideep (November 20, 2010). "The 1962 jailing of Chinese Indians". OPEN. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.

[196] Schiavenza, Matt (August 9, 2013). "India's Forgotten Chinese Internment Camp". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on November 9, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.

[197] "Indo Tibetan meet proposes boycott of Chinese goods". The Times of India. September 23, 2013. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved October 20, 2014.

[198] "Boycott Chinese products, says prominent cleric in Eid sermon". Zee News. October 6, 2014. Archived from the original on October 7, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.

[199] "India says China's Galwan Valley claims 'untenable, exaggerated'". aljazeera. Archived from the original on September 10, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[200] "Google Removes Viral Indian App That Deleted Chinese Ones: 10 Points". NDTV. June 3, 2020. Archived from the original on June 3, 2020.

[reviewofEbySouth-201] Young, Jason. "Review of East by South: China in the Australasian Imagination". Victoria University of Wellington. Archived from the original (.doc) on April 14, 2008. Retrieved March 24, 2008.

[Markey-202] Markey, Raymond (January 1, 1996). "Race and organized labor in Australia, 1850–1901". The Historian. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved June 14, 2006.

[Griffiths-203] Griffiths, Phil (July 4, 2002). "Towards White Australia: The shadow of Mill and the spectre of slavery in the 1880s debates on Chinese immigration" (RTF). 11th Biennial National Conference of the Australian Historical Association. Archived from the original on February 14, 2015. Retrieved June 14, 2006.

[204] Giese, Diana (1995). Beyond Chinatown (PDF). National Library of Australia. pp. 35–37. ISBN 0642106339. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 29, 2022. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[205] "China Outrage Over Sydney Train Assault". Sydney Morning Herald. April 26, 2012. Archived from the original on May 31, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[206] Lord, Kathy (July 25, 2017). "Offensive flyers targeting Chinese students found at Melbourne universities". ABC News. Archived from the original on August 29, 2017. Retrieved August 24, 2017.

[207] Riordan, Primrose (August 2, 2017). "Chinese social media outraged by racist graffiti at Sydney University".

[208] Kwai, Isabella; Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong (July 25, 2017). "Anti-Chinese Posters at Melbourne Universities Are Tied to White Supremacists". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved August 24, 2017.

[pantograph-209] K. Emma Ng (11 ago. 2015). Old Asian, New Asian Archived May 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. The Pantograph Punch.

[210] Katherine Dolan (September 16, 2016). New Zealand is no paradise: Rugby, racism and homophobia Archived April 6, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Stuff.

[PNG_riots_hit_Chinese_businesses-211] "PNG riots hit Chinese businesses". BBC. May 18, 2009. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[212] "Overseas and under siege". The Economist. 2009. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[213] "No More Chinese!" Archived June 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Tongatapu.net

[The-Pacific-Proxy-214] "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan" Archived November 4, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, February 7, 2007

[215] "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots" Archived May 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, People's Daily, November 17, 2006

[216] Kuo, Mercy A. "Israeli Perceptions of China: Implications for the United States". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[217] Pompilio, Natalie (July 15, 2019). "How Shanghai Saved 20,000 Jews from the Nazis". Thedailybeast.com. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[218] "China's Kaifeng Jews date back 1,400 years and have an unlikely ambassador – a teenager from Hong Kong". South China Morning Post. March 8, 2020. Archived from the original on November 17, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[219] Ross, Paul (November 20, 2015). "Mao's Jews". Jewish Journal. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2022.

[220] Shnidman, Ronen. "How a Jewish doctor helped form backbone of revolutionary China's medical system". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved January 5, 2022.

[timesofisrael-221] "Chinese authorities crack down on tiny Jewish community". The Times of Israel. September 25, 2016. Archived from the original on March 23, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[222] Gilbert, Lela (February 15, 2019). "Tiny Kaifeng Jewish community faces Orwellian future". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on November 22, 2023. Retrieved April 22, 2020.

[223] "Video: Turkish nationalists protesting China attack Korean tourists in Istanbul". Hurriyet Daily News. Doğan News Agency. July 4, 2015. Archived from the original on August 23, 2015. Retrieved June 16, 2016.

[224] "Turks protesting against China attack Koreans 'by mistake'". Malay Mail. Agence France-Presse. July 5, 2014. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2016.

[225] "China says tourists attacked in Turkey during anti-China protests". Reuters. July 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 13, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.

[226] Lefevre, Amy Sawitta; Dikmen, Yesim (July 9, 2015). "Thai PM defends decision to send Uighurs back to China". Reuters. Archived from the original on November 26, 2015. Retrieved July 2, 2017.

[227] Pinar Tremblay (July 20, 2015). "Attacks on Chinese escalate in Turkey". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021.

[228] Giorgio Cafiero; Bertrand Viala (March 15, 2017). "China-Turkey Relations Grow Despite Differences over Uighurs". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on November 25, 2018.

[229] "Turks embrace Russia, China, reject U.S. - U.S. State Dept poll". Ahval. Archived from the original on January 16, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.

[230] Mackinnon, Colum Lynch, Amy (September 4, 2020). "Document of the Week: Czech Pol to China: Piss Off". Archived from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[231] "'Heavy price': China threatens Czech official over Taiwan visit". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on May 25, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[232] "China influence aggravates Czech Republic's political war". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on June 10, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[Ponniah-233] Ponniah, Kevin (October 26, 2016). "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2018.

[234] "A killing in Paris: Why French Chinese are in uproar". BBC News. October 25, 2016. Archived from the original on June 26, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2018.

[235] Mulholland, Rory (February 22, 2018). "Emmanuel Macron promises to stop foreign investors buying up French farms after China land grab". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.

[institutmontaigne.org-236] "La Chine vue par les Français : menace ou opportunité ?". Institut Montaigne (in French). Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[237] Nik.Fes@tourism-review.com, Nik Fes. "Chinese Tourists – Parisians Not Only Happy about the Tourism Boom | .TR". www.tourism-review.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[238] "Survey Finds Americans Are Most Annoying Airline Passengers". TravelPulse. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[239] "Stats: Speaking Louder, Slower Picked as Most Ignorant Tourist Habit". Travel Agent Central. September 18, 2018. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[240] "Chinese Tourists' Behavior Improving, Study by Chinese Tourism Authority Finds". Jing Daily. February 23, 2017. Archived from the original on January 1, 2020. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[241] "Globale Umfrage: Deutsche Touristen im Ausland eher unbeliebt". Die Welt. September 3, 2019. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[242] Seipp, Bettina (June 6, 2014). "Umfrage : Warum Russen die unbeliebtesten Touristen sind". Die Welt. Archived from the original on November 24, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[243] "Don't worry: German tourists hate sunbed grabbers too". TheJournal.ie, Agence France Presse. June 6, 2014. Archived from the original on May 10, 2017.

[244] How did the Boxer Rebellion unite Imperial Powers and create Chinese Nationalism? Archived March 7, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Daily History.

[245] Carbone, Iside (January 12, 2015). China in the Frame: Materialising Ideas of China in Italian Museums. Cambridge Scholars. ISBN 9781443873062.

[Ancient-Italian-Town-Turns-Against-Chinese-Migrants-Archived-May-28-246] Ancient Italian Town Turns Against Chinese Migrants Archived May 28, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on VOA News. Posted by Henry Ridgwell on October 22, 2010.

[247] Ricardo Padron (2014).Sinophobia vs. Sinofilia in the 16th Century Iberian World Archived July 4, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Instituto Cultural do Governo da R.A.E de Macau.

[248] Cameron, Nigel (1976). Barbarians and mandarins: thirteen centuries of Western travelers in China. Vol. 681 of A phoenix book (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-226-09229-4. Archived from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved July 18, 2011. envoy, had most effectively poured out his tale of woe, of deprivation at the hands of the Portuguese in Malacca; and he had backed up the tale with others concerning the reprehensible Portuguese methods in the Moluccas, making the case (quite truthfully) that European trading visits were no more than the prelude to annexation of territory. With the tiny sea power at this time available to the Chinese

[249] Duarte Drumond Braga (2017). de portugal a macau: Filosofia E Literatura No Diálogo Das Culturas Archived May 30, 2024, at the Wayback Machine. Universidade do Porto, Faculdade de Letras.

[251] Peyrouse, Sebastien. "Understanding Sinophobia in Central Asia". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on February 17, 2016. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

[252] Santoli, Al (January 29, 2001). "Russian far east residents fear takeover by China; Sino-Russian "strategic cooperation" pact aimed at US". American Foreign Policy Council. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.

[253] Baker, Peter (August 2, 2003). "Russians fear Chinese 'takeover' of Far East regions". Dawn. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. Retrieved March 25, 2008.

[254] Libman, Alexander; Vollan, Björn (2019). "Anti-Western Conspiracy Thinking in China and Russia: Empirical Evidence and its Link to Expectations of Collusion". Homo Oeconomicus. 36 (3–4): 135–163. doi:10.1007/s41412-019-00082-9. S2CID 201356636.

[255] Weitz, Richard (2012). "SUPERPOWER SYMBIOSIS: The Russia-China Axis". World Affairs. 175 (4): 71–78. JSTOR 41639036.

[256] "Mapping Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Antecedents in Russia (chart)". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[257] Grigoryev, Dmitry; Fiske, Susan T.; Batkhina, Anastasia (July 16, 2019). "Mapping Ethnic Stereotypes and Their Antecedents in Russia: The Stereotype Content Model". Frontiers in Psychology. 10: 1643. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01643. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 6646730. PMID 31379677.

[The-Diplomat-2020-258] "Poll: The EU Has Solid Common Ground When It Comes To China". The Diplomat. November 16, 2020. Archived from the original on November 16, 2020.

[259] "Russian public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 6 and 8)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 16, 2021.

[260] The story of Li-ma-hong and his failed attempt to conquer Manila in 1574 Archived July 23, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Wednesday October 24, 2012.

[261] Samuel Hawley. The Spanish Plan to Conquer China Archived July 19, 2019, at the Wayback Machine.

[262] "Spanish public opinion on China in the age of COVID-19 (pages 4 and 9)" (PDF). Central European Institute of Asian Studies, Elcano Royal Institute. October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 29, 2020.

[263] Walsh, Michael (September 18, 2018). "China says Swedish police 'brutally abused' tourists ejected from a hostel". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on April 8, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[264] Walsh, Michael; Xiao, Bang (September 29, 2018). "'Vicious attack': Comedy skit deepens China and Sweden's diplomatic spat". ABC News. Archived from the original on October 29, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[265] "Touristes expulsés et blagues racistes : tensions entre la Suede et la Chine". Le Monde (via Youtube). September 26, 2018. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[266] "A Swedish TV Show Said Chinese Tourists Poop In Public And People Are Pissed". BuzzFeed News. September 25, 2018. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[267] "Aili Tang - Örebro University School of Business". www.oru.se. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[268] "Sveriges Television sprider rasism om kineser". DN.SE (in Swedish). September 26, 2018. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[269] Tomas Haupt. "Sweden Avoided by Chinese Tourists". www.tourism-review.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[270] "Scanian of the Year: Jesper Rönndahl gets his portrait at Malmö Airport". www.swedavia.com. Archived from the original on April 6, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[271] Flittner, Sofia (May 11, 2020). "Hostility between China and Sweden at an all-time high". ScandAsia. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[272] "How Sweden copes with Chinese bullying". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020. Retrieved September 7, 2020.

[273] Milne, Richard (February 2020). "Swedish cities cut China links after increase in tension". Financial Times. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022.

[274] "Sweden shutters all China-sponsored Confucius Institutes". Taiwan News. April 23, 2020. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[275] Russell, Dave (February 10, 2020). "Chinese in Sweden report increased stigmatisation since coronavirus outbreak". Sveriges Radio. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved August 26, 2024 – via sverigesradio.se.

[276] "YouGov / Eurotrack Survey Results" (PDF). YouGov. May 25, 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 26, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[277] Yang, William (March 8, 2022). "Ukraine: Sexist comments on Chinese social media trigger backlash". DW News. Archived from the original on January 26, 2023. Retrieved September 19, 2022. Another Chinese student said some Chinese nationals in Ukraine had been confronted by Ukrainian people. The Chinese Embassy in Ukraine, which originally encouraged citizens to display Chinese flags on their cars for protection, quickly urged them not to identify themselves or sport any signs of national identity.

[278] "Thousands of Chinese nationals waiting to leave Ukraine - Al Jazeera English" on YouTube

[279] Yakimenko, Yuriy (April 5, 2023). "Зовнішня політика України в умовах війни: стан, особливості та пріоритети [Ukrainian foreign policy in wartime: current state, nuances and priorities]". Ukrinform. Archived from the original on June 6, 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2023. Негативне ставлення найчастіше висловлюється до росії – 94%, білорусі – 81%, Ірану – 73,5%, Китаю – 60%, Угорщини – 46,5%.

[280] "Attitudes toward China". Pew Research Center. December 5, 2019. Archived from the original on September 20, 2023. Retrieved April 7, 2023.

[281] Doward, Jamie; Hyman, Mika (November 19, 2017). "Chinese report highest levels of racial harassment in UK". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[Thomas-2015-282] Thomas, Emily (January 6, 2015). "British Chinese people say racism against them is 'ignored'". BBC News. Archived from the original on April 26, 2018. Retrieved May 2, 2018.

[283] "Ataque xenófobo a los comercios chinos". eldiaonline (in Spanish). December 13, 2013. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[284] Oliveira, Gustavo de L. T. (2018). "Chinese land grabs in Brazil? Sinophobia and foreign investments in Brazilian soybean agribusiness". Globalizations. 15: 114–133. Bibcode:2018Glob...15..114O. doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.1377374. S2CID 158910046. Archived from the original on October 23, 2023. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[285] Canada (2006). "Address by the Prime Minister on the Chinese Head Tax Redress". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on May 2, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2006.

[286] PM apologizes in House of Commons for head tax Archived February 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine

[287] Anti-Chinese sentiment partly governments' fault: Steves Archived November 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Richmond News. Posted by Graeme Wood on November 23, 2016, at 12:52 PM.

[288] An anti-Chinese mob in Mexico Archived May 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. New York Times.

[289] Taylor, Lewis. Indigenous Peasant Rebellions in Peru during the 1880s

[bonilla-290] Bonilla, Heraclio. 1978. The National and Colonial Problem in Peru. Past and Present

[291] López-Calvo, Ignacio; Chang-Rodríguez, Eugenio (2014). Dragons in the Land of the Condor: Writing Tusán in Peru. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 9780816531110. Retrieved April 22, 2020 – via Google Books.

[292] Norton, Henry K. (1924). The Story of California From the Earliest Days to the Present. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. pp. 283–296. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved October 2, 2011.

[293] See, e.g., "Our Misery and Despair": Kearney Blasts Chinese Immigration Archived July 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on History Matters: The U.S. Survey course on the web. Posted by Dennis Kearney, President, and H.L Knight, Secretary.

[294] Ling, Huping (2004). Chinese St. Louis: From Enclave to Cultural Community. Temple University Press. p. 68. The murder of Elsie Sigel immediately grabbed the front pages of newspapers, which portrayed Chinese men as dangerous to "innocent" and "virtuous" young white women. This murder led to a surge in the harassment of Chinese in communities across the United States.

[295] Gompers, Samuel; Gustadt, Herman (1902). Meat vs. Rice: American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism: Which Shall Survive?. American Federation of Labor.

[296] Lai, Him Mark; Hsu, Madeline Y. (2010). Chinese American Transnational Politics. University of Illinois Press. pp. 53–54.

[297] Chin, Gabriel J. "Harlan, Chinese and Chinese Americans". University of Dayton Law School. Archived from the original on August 11, 2017. Retrieved April 28, 2011.

[298] Pierson, David (April 20, 2008). "Protesters gather at CNN". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2021.

[Chris-Berdik-2008-299] Chris Berdik (April 25, 2008). "Is the World Against China? | BU Today". Boston University. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[Chi-300] Chi, Frank (November 8, 2010). "In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved August 26, 2024.

[lyden-301] Lyden, Jacki (October 27, 2010). "Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia". NPR. Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved December 5, 2010.

[302] Yang, Jeff (October 27, 2010). "Politicians Play The China Card". Tell Me More. NPR. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved December 5, 2010.

[303] "Did protesters overreact to Jimmy Kimmel's jokes about Chinese people?". The Denver Post. November 7, 2013. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[304] "'Kill everyone in China': Outrage over comment during Jimmy Kimmel skit". South China Morning Post. October 23, 2013. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2013.

[305] Summers, Ann (July 3, 2016). "all Trump has left is Islamophobia and Sinophobia in the swing-states". Flowers For Socrates. Archived from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2018.

[306] Anti-China rhetoric in campaign suggests change under a new president Archived November 8, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Washington Post. Posted on September 23, 2015.

[307] It isn't only Trump who loves a trade war Archived July 24, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Posted on Spiked. Posted on March 6, 2018.

[308] Swanson, Ana (July 20, 2019). "A New Red Scare Is Reshaping Washington". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 20, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.

[309] "Caught in the middle: Chinese-Americans feel heat as tensions flare". South China Morning Post. September 25, 2018. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.

[Huang-2022-310] Huang, Christine; Silver, Laura; Clancy, Laura (April 22, 2022). "China's Partnership With Russia Seen as Serious Problem for the U.S." Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project. Retrieved May 9, 2022.

[311] "Search Results for chinese | FAIR - Page 2". Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[312] Stephen Harner (November 3, 2014). "Dealing with the Scourge of "Schadenfreude" in Foreign Reporting on China". China-US Focus. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[313] Zhou, Min (April 7, 2009). Contemporary Chinese America: Immigration, Ethnicity, and Community Transformation. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-59213-859-3.

[314] Snider, Mike. "Steve Bannon learned to harness troll army from 'World of Warcraft'". USA Today. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[315] "Why Won't the Chinese Line Up?". HuffPost. May 25, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[316] "Black in Beijing: How Transient Black Foreigners Create Community in China (page 106)".

[317] Rathi, Akshat (November 11, 2017). "My trip to China shattered my biases about developing nations". Quartz India. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[318] "Why Chinese Tourists Absolutely Love This Luxury Outlet 46 Minutes Outside London". Time. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[319] Kaiman, Jonathan. "At Shanghai Disney, there are fans and then there are superfans". baltimoresun.com. Archived from the original on December 24, 2019. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[320] "Rain doesn't dampen the mood of opening day at Shanghai Disney". Los Angeles Times. June 16, 2016. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[321] "Sichuan's Race Against Time". Radio Free Asia. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[322] "Americans Love Canadian Visitors. British Tourists? Not So Much". TravelPulse. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[323] "Most Americans Support Tough Stance Toward China on Human Rights, Economic Issues". Pew Research Center. March 4, 2021. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021.

[324] "How DeSantis' ban on Chinese homeownership has affected buyers and real estate agents 3 months in". October 18, 2023.

[325] Aidoo, Richard (2018). "Go Global, Meet the Locals: Pragmatism, Plunder, and Anti-Chinese Populism in Africa" (PDF). Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations. Seton Hall University.

[326] White, Edward (August 5, 2016). "Analysis: Unpacking Attacks on Chinese Workers in Africa". The News Lens. Archived from the original on August 7, 2016.

[327] "Feared rise in anti-Chinese attacks in Africa". AFP News Agency. June 2013. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021.

[328] "Africans in One of China's Major Cities Say They Are Targets After a Spike in COVID-19". Time. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[329] Olusegun Adeniyi (April 15, 2020). "China, COVID-19 and African Anger". This Day. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[330] Rise in anti-Chinese violence in Kenya forces halt of major rail project. Posted on International Business Times. Posted by Elsa Buchanan, on August 19, 2016, 14:32 BST.

[331] TSG IntelBrief: Rising Sinophobia in Africa Archived December 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, July 31, 2013

[332] Negi, Rohit (January 1, 2008). "Beyond the "Chinese Scramble": The Political Economy of Anti-China Sentiment in Zambia". African Geographical Review. 27 (1): 41–63. Bibcode:2008AfrGR..27...41N. doi:10.1080/19376812.2008.9756209. S2CID 153502797.

[333] "Zambia blames opposition for anti-China attacks". Jakarta Post, Agence France Presse. November 9, 2018.

[334] Eric Olander, Cobus van Staden (September 2016). "Sinophobia In Zambia Is More Complex Than The International Press Presents". HuffPost.

[TheGuardiancom-2015-335] Smith, David (August 12, 2015). "South African teachers oppose plan to offer Mandarin lessons from age nine". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[336] "Mandarin is putting in extra work to catch up with European languages in South African classrooms". February 6, 2019.

[337] Kuo, Lily (April 30, 2017). "Chinese migrants have changed the face of South Africa. Now they're leaving". Quartz Africa. Retrieved January 1, 2020.

[338] "Western media should rethink its distorted portrayal of China's rise". South China Morning Post. June 5, 2016. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[339] Negative Portrayal of Chinese in Hollywood Movies Archived May 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. China Daily Blog. Posted on July 11, 2016.

[340] Pulver, Andrew (December 7, 2016). "Matt Damon on Great Wall whitewashing: 'I didn't take role from Chinese actor'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[341] Watts, Jonathan (June 14, 2005). "China's secret internet police target critics with web of propaganda". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[342] Campbell, Charlie (October 17, 2017). "Propaganda Reaches Fever Pitch as China's Congress Nears". TIME. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[343] Nyland, Chris; Forbes-Mewett, Helen; Thomson, S. Bruce (2011). "Sinophobia as Corporate Tactic and the Response of Host Communities". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 41 (4): 610–631. doi:10.1080/00472336.2011.610617. S2CID 153335960.

[344] "CCTV struggles to silence criticism that it's a propaganda machine". ABC News. November 16, 2014. Retrieved August 29, 2024.

[345] Jessica Batke, Oliver Melton, Why Do We Keep Writing About Chinese Politics As if We Know More Than We Do? Posted on ChinaFile, October 16, 2017.

[346] Moosavi, Leon (July 3, 2022). "The myth of academic tolerance: the stigmatisation of East Asian students in Western higher education". Asian Ethnicity. 23 (3): 484–503. doi:10.1080/14631369.2021.1882289. ISSN 1463-1369.

[347] Amy Chua (January 6, 2004). World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4000-7637-6.

[348] Fontes, Lisa Aronson (May 23, 2008). ?. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-710-3.

[349] Robert Lee, A (January 28, 2008). ?. Rodopi. ISBN 9789042023512. Retrieved August 23, 2010.

[350] 納粹中國 #Chinazi | 楊繼昌. 眾新聞 (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved September 5, 2019.

[351] VanderKlippe, Nathan (August 29, 2019). "In Hong Kong, protesters employ Nazi imagery as demonstrations erupt again". The Globe and Mail Inc.

[352] Wong, Chun Han (September 30, 2019). "Hong Kong Protesters Taunt Beijing in Bid to Spoil Communist China's Birthday". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[353] "Protesters drop Nazi term after Western input - RTHK".

[354] "Pinoy or Tsinoy, What is the Problem?". September 13, 2013. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[355] "Intsik". Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved May 9, 2015.

[356] "Pinoy Slang - Tsekwa". Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved July 23, 2013.

[357] "Kamus Slang Mobile". kamusslang.com. Archived from the original on February 2, 2017.

[358] Howell, David L. (February 7, 2005). Geographies of Identity in Nineteenth-Century Japan. University of California Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-520-93087-2.

[359] LIU, Lydia He (June 30, 2009). The Clash of Empires: the invention of China in modern world making. Harvard University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-674-04029-8.

[360] Song, Weijie (November 17, 2017). Mapping Modern Beijing: Space, Emotion, Literary Topography. Oxford University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-19-069284-1.

[361] Lim, David C. L. (June 30, 2008). Overcoming Passion for Race in Malaysia Cultural Studies. BRILL. p. 32. ISBN 978-90-474-3370-5.

[362] "Police officer dispatched from Osaka insults protesters in Okinawa". The Japan Times Online. October 19, 2016. Retrieved November 25, 2019.

[363] 중국, 질문 좀 할게 (in Korean). 좋은땅. April 22, 2016. p. 114. ISBN 9791159820205. Retrieved April 21, 2017.

[364] (in Korean) Jjangkkolla – Naver encyclopedia

[365] "떼놈. 때놈. 뙤놈?". December 13, 2014.

[366] "Celulares Xing-Ling: o que são e por que não comprá-los". TechTudo (in Brazilian Portuguese). December 13, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2020.

[367] "'Pastel de flango'? Racismo anti-amarelos não é mimimi". Capricho (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved July 21, 2021.

[368] Randall, Annie J.; Davis, Rosalind Gray (2005). Puccini and The Girl: History and Reception of The Girl of the Golden West. University of Chicago Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-226-70389-3.

[369] Giampieri, Patrizia (June 23, 2017). "Racial slurs in Italian film dubbing". Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts. 3 (2): 262–263. doi:10.1075/ttmc.3.2.06gia.

[Nguyễn-2019-370] Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. Người ta còn dùng các từ như Khựa, Xẩm, Chú Ba… để chỉ người Tàu, cũng với hàm ý miệt thị, coi thường.

[371] "Trung Cộng - Wiktionary". en.wiktionary.org.

[372] "Cảnh giác trước lời đe doạ của Trung Cộng". Radio Free Asia.

[373] Pham, Ngoc Thuy Vi. "The Educational Development of the Chinese Community in Southern Vietnam" (PDF). National Cheng Kung University. p. 6. Also, according to the "Dictionnaire Annamite–français", "Chec" (Chệc) was the nickname that the Vietnamese people at that time used for Huaqiao. "Chệc" was also how the Annamites called the ethnic Chinese in an unfriendly way. (Chệc: Que les Annamites donnent aux Chinois surnom en mauvaise partie) (J. F. M. Genibrel 1898: 79).

[374] Nguyễn, Ngọc Chính (May 27, 2019). "Ngôn ngữ Sài Gòn xưa: Những vay mượn từ người Tàu". Khoa Việt Nam Học. "…Còn kêu là Chệc là tại tiếng Triều Châu kêu tâng Chệc nghĩa là chú. Người bên Tàu hay giữ phép, cũng như An-nam ta, thấy người ta tuổi đáng cậu, cô, chú, bác thì kêu tâng là chú là cậu vân vân. Người An-nam ta nghe vậy vịn theo mà kêu các ảnh là Chệc…"

[376] Ponniah, Kevin; Marinkovic, Lazara (May 7, 2019). "The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy". BBC News.

[377] Zhao, Suisheng (1998). "A State-Led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 31 (3): 287–302. doi:10.1016/S0967-067X(98)00009-9.

[378] Fan, Yingjie; Pan, Jennifer; Shao, Zijie; Xu, Yiqing (June 29, 2020). "How Discrimination Increases Chinese Overseas Students' Support for Authoritarian Rule". Stanford University. SSRN 3637710 – via Social Science Research Network. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[379] Parker, Charlie (July 20, 2020). "Campus prejudice 'is driving support for China'". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460.

[380] Sky News Australia (March 3, 2024). 'We do not have a problem with China': Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim. Retrieved May 25, 2024 – via YouTube.

[381] Bernama (March 8, 2024). "China appreciates PM Anwar's stance on 'China-phobia'". New Straits Times. Retrieved May 25, 2024.

[382] O'Hara, Mary Emily. "Mock Subway Posters Urge New Yorkers to Curb Anti-Asian Hate". www.adweek.com. Retrieved July 12, 2020.

[383] "'You deserve the coronavirus': Chinese people in UK abused over outbreak". Sky News. February 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.

[384] Smith, Nicola; Torre, Giovanni (February 1, 2020). "Anti-Chinese racism spikes as virus spreads globally". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022. Retrieved July 1, 2020. 'Some Muslims stated that the disease was "divine retribution" for China's oppression of the Uighur minority. The problem lay in confusing the Chinese population with the actions of an authoritarian government which is known for its lack of transparency,' he stated.

[385] Solhi, Farah (January 26, 2020). "Some Malaysians calling for ban on Chinese tourists". New Straits Times.

[386] Cha, Hyonhee Shin (January 28, 2020). "South Koreans call in petition for Chinese to be barred over virus". Reuters – via www.reuters.com.

[387] Tavernise, Sabrina; Oppel, Richard A. Jr. (March 23, 2020). "Spit On, Yelled At, Attacked: Chinese-Americans Fear for Their Safety". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

[388] "Hunt for racist coronavirus attackers: Police release CCTV after assault". ITV News. March 4, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

[389] Rogers, Katie; Jakes, Lara; Swanson, Ana (March 18, 2020). "Trump Defends Using 'Chinese Virus' Label, Ignoring Growing Criticism". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

[390] "Trump: Asian-Americans not responsible for virus, need protection". Reuters. March 24, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

[391] "'Not racist at all': Donald Trump defends calling coronavirus the 'Chinese virus'". The Guardian -- YouTube. March 18, 2020. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2020.

[392] "Sinophobia (English language version) - Report + Support - University of Surrey". reportandsupport.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

[393] "What is Sinophobia? - Report + Support - The University of Edinburgh". reportandsupport.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

[394] "SOAS statement on Sinophobia and anti-Asian racism | SOAS". www.soas.ac.uk. March 24, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

[395] "The Beaver". March 5, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2024.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[note 1]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

[101]

v t e Racism
Types of racism	Aversive Colorism Covert Cultural Cyber Environmental Formal Gendered Institutional Internalized Patent Laissez-faire Linguistic Neocolonial Romantic Scientific Societal Substantive Symbolic
Manifestations of racism	Anti-miscegenation laws Apartheid Biological determinism Discrimination based on nationality Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic jokes Ethnic slurs Ethnic stereotype Hate crime Hate speech Hate group Racialization Racial hierarchy Racial nationalism Racial profiling Racial segregation
Racism by region	Global apartheid Africa South Africa Zimbabwe Asia China Japan North Korea South Korea Thailand Vietnam Arab world Libya Saudi Arabia Sudan Australia Europe Denmark France Germany Italy Poland Portugal Russia Soviet Union Spain Ukraine United Kingdom Middle East Iran Israel Palestine Turkey North America Canada United States Mexico South America Argentina Brazil Chile
Racism by target	Arab Asians Chinese Chinese Americans Zainichi Chinese Japanese Japanese Americans Japanese Koreans Korean Zainichi Koreans Vietnamese Black African Americans Women Mexican Native Americans Jewish Jewish Americans In Jewish communities LGBT Middle Eastern Muslim Romani Slavic Wine industry Racial supremacy White supremacy
Related topics	Ableism Alt-right Anti-racism Casteism Ethnic plastic surgery Go back to where you came from Herrenvolk democracy Interminority racism in the United States Hispanics/Latinos Lynching Passing Perpetual foreigner Psychometrics of racism Race and sexuality Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Race card Racial figleaf Racial integration Racial quota Racism in sport in Australia Reverse racism Sociology of race and ethnic relations Xenophobia
Category Commons Index

v t e Discrimination
Forms	Institutional Structural Statistical Taste-based
Attributes	Age Caste Class Dialect Disability Genetic Hair texture Height Language Looks Mental disorder Race / Ethnicity Skin color Scientific racism Rank Sex Sexual orientation Species Size Viewpoint
Social	Arophobia Acephobia Adultism Anti-albinism Anti-autism Anti-homelessness Anti-drug addicts Anti-intellectualism Anti-intersex Anti-left handedness Anti-Masonry Aporophobia Audism Biphobia Clannism Elitism Ephebiphobia Social determinants of health Social determinants of health in poverty Social determinants of mental health Fatphobia Gayphobia Gerontophobia Heterosexism HIV/AIDS stigma Homophobia Leprosy stigma Lesbophobia Discrimination against men Misandry Misogyny Nepotism Pedophobia Perpetual foreigner Pregnancy Sectarianism Supremacism Aryanism Autistic Black Chauvinism Female Illusory Jewish Male Nordicism Tigraynization Ultranationalism White Transphobia 21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom Non-binary Transmisogyny Trans men Vegaphobia Xenophobia
Religious	Atheism Exclusivism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Christianity Persecution Catholicism Eastern Orthodoxy Jehovah's Witnesses LDS or Mormon Protestantism Tewahedo Orthodoxy post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Ahmadiyya Shi'ism Sufism Sunnism minority Muslim Judaism Persecution Neopaganism Rastafari Sikhism Yazidism Zoroastrianism
Ethnic/National	Afghan African Albanian Arab Armenian Asian France South Africa United States Assyrian Australian Austrian Azerbaijani Black people African Americans China South Africa Bengali Bulgarian Catalan Chechen Chinese Colombian Croat Dutch English Estonian Filipino French Fulani Finnish Georgian German Greek Haitian Hazara Hungarian Igbo Indian Indigenous people Australia Canada United States Iranian Irish Italian Japanese Jewish Antisemitism New Korean Kurdish Lithuanian Malay Māori Mexican Middle Eastern Mongolian Montenegrin Nigerian Pakistani Palestinians Pashtun Polish Portuguese Quebec Romani Romanian Russian Scottish Serb Slavic Somali Spanish Tatar Thai Turkish Ukrainian Uyghur Venezuelan Vietnamese Welsh
Manifestations	Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups Anti-LGBTQ movement in the US Anti-trans movement in the UK Anti-Zionism Blood libel Bullying Cancel culture Capital punishment for homosexuality Compulsory sterilization Corrective rape Counter-jihad Cultural genocide Defamation Democide Disability hate crime Dog whistle Domicide Economic Education Employment Eliminationism Enemy of the people Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnocide Excellence Gender-based dress codes Cosmetics policy High heel policy Forced conversion Freak show Gay bashing Gendercide Genital modification and mutilation Genocide examples Glass ceiling Hate crime Violence against LGBTQ people Hate group Hate speech Homeless dumping Housing Indian rolling Kill Haole Day Lavender scare LGBTQ+ grooming conspiracy theory List of people killed for being transgender Lynching Mortgage Murder music Native American mascots Occupational segregation Opposition to immigration Paper genocide Persecution Pogrom Political repression Purge Racialization Religious persecution Religious terrorism Religious violence Religious war Scapegoating Segregation academy Sentencing disparity Sexual harassment Sex-selective abortion Slut-shaming Trans bashing Victimisation Violence against women White flight White genocide conspiracy theory Wife selling Witch hunt
Discriminatory policies	Age of candidacy Blood purity Blood quantum Crime of apartheid Disabilities Catholic Jewish Gender pay gap Gender roles Transphobia in the US House of Representatives Gerontocracy Gerrymandering Ghetto benches Internment Jewish quota Law for Protection of the Nation LGBTQ rights opposition MSM blood donation restrictions No kid zone Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota) One-drop rule Racial quota Racial segregation Jim Crow laws Nuremberg Laws Racial steering Redlining Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting) Segregation age racial religious sexual Social exclusion Sodomy law State atheism State religion Ugly law Voter suppression
Countermeasures	Affirmative action Anti-discrimination law Anti-racism Constitutional colorblindness Cultural assimilation Cultural pluralism Diversity, equity, and inclusion Diversity training Empowerment Fat acceptance movement Feminism Fighting Discrimination Hate speech laws by country Human rights Intersex human rights LGBT rights Nonviolence Racial integration Reappropriation Self-determination Social integration Toleration
Related topics	Allophilia Amatonormativity Bias Cisnormativity Civil liberties Criminalization of homosexuality Dehumanization Diversity Multiculturalism Neurodiversity Ethnic penalty Figleaf Gender-blind Heteronormativity Historical eugenics Internalized oppression Intersectionality Masculism Medical model of disability autism Net bias Oikophobia Oppression Police brutality Political correctness Polyculturalism Power distance Prejudice Prisoner abuse Racial bias in criminal news in the United States Racism by country Racial color blindness Religious intolerance Reverse discrimination Reverse racism Second-generation gender bias Snobbery Social equity Social exclusion Social identity threat Social model of disability Social privilege Christian male white Social stigma Speciesism Stereotype threat The talk
Category Commons